SEMINAR ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELL MADE OF SEMICONDUCTOR

SEMINAR TOPIC ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELL MADE OF SEMICONDUCTOR WRITTEN BY chinedu james e. (POWER OPTION) TABLE OF CONTENTS SEMINAR TOPIC ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELL MADE OF SEMICONDUCTOR TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv Contents v Abstract vi Table of content Abstract CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Primary energy sources 1.2 Renewable energy sources Photovoltaic solar energy (solar electricity) 1.4 Introduction to photovoltaic solar energy 1.5 Photovoltaic technologies 1.6 Photovoltaic applications and market CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Improving the performance of organic solar cells 2.1 Magnetic nanoparticles enhance performance of solar cells 2.3 Improve Solar PV Panel Efficiency and Output Power Solar Cell Technology Fill factor Solar Cells Glazing Solar Panel Orientation Solar tracker Concentrators Solar Charge Controls MPPT Controller Top of Form 2.4 Blu-Ray Disc Can be Used to Improve Solar Cell Performance Data storage pattern transferred to solar cell increases light absorption 2.5 Improving the efficiency of solar panels Light scattering was promoted in the visible part of sunlight's spectrum CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Materials Crystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon Ribbon silicon Mono-like-multi silicon (MLM) Thin film Cadmium telluride Copper indium gallium selenide Silicon thin film Gallium arsenide thin film Multijunction cells 3.2 Research in solar cells Perovskite solar cells 3.3 Upconversion and Downconversion 3.4 Light-absorbing dyes 3.4 Quantum dots 3.5 Organic/polymer solar cells Manufacture CHAPTER FOUR Conclusion and recommendation reference Abstract The purpose of this project was to investigate how the design of solar cells could be improved so that they could become a more reliable source of energy. The first design change considered was shape manipulation, in which a normal photovoltaic array would be changed from a flat panel to either a cylindrical, parabolic, or spherical light-capture device. The idea is to change the cell or panel so that as much light is absorbed as possible. The second idea explored was to use a home water heating system in conjunction with the solar cells in order to control temperature fluctuation within the solar array, thus optimizing efficiency. The use of wiper blades, similar to windshield wiper systems in cars, was proposed as our third idea in order to remove any snow or debris from the surface of the panels. Other changes considered included the use of light-manipulation methods, such as Fresnel lenses, to enhance solar flux, prisms, which would be used to redirect light towards an array of solar cells, and one way glass, CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They are used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:  The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.  The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.  The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photoelectrolytic cell" (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination. Any change that takes place in the universe is accompanied by a change in a quantity that we name energy. We do not know what energy exactly is, we use this term to describe a capacity of a physical or biological system for movement or change. Energy comes in many forms, such as electrical energy, chemical energy, or mechanical energy, and it can be used to realize many forms of change, such as movement, heating, or chemical change. Any activity, and human activity as well, requires energy. Human beings need it to move their bodies, to cook, to heat and light houses, or to drive vehicles. Human being is a greedy consumer of energy. An active young man needs about 2500 kcal (2.9 kWh) per day to fulfil his daily energy requirements. This means the energy of about 1060 kWh per year. The present global energy consumption is around 19 000 kWh per inhabitant per year. It means that on average a man consumes about 19 times more energy than is needed for his survival and satisfactory health. The mankind has witnessed an enormous increase in energy consumption during last 100 years. While in 1890 the energy use per inhabitant per year was around 5800 kWh it reached 20200 kWh in 1970. Since 1970 the energy use has dropped to the present level of 19000 kWh per inhabitant per year. The increase in energy use in the 20th century can be related to an evolution process that has started about five centuries ago. The underlying motivation of this process was formulated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th century as the philosophy of human progress. The aim of the process was an examination of the surrounding world and its adaptation to the needs of people whose life would become more secure and comfortable. This process was accompanied by growing industrialization and mass production, which were demanding more and more energy. At the end of the 19th century coal was the main source of energy. In this period electricity was introduced in the industrialized countries as a new and elegant form of energy. This form of energy was quickly applied on a large scale. The widespread growth of electricity use led to construction of hydroelectric plants and hydropower became an important source of energy in the first half of the 20th century. In the period after the World War II much effort was put into the reconstruction of the society. The emphasis was directed on the growth and efficiency of the mass production. New technologies and new materials, such as plastic, were applied in the production. The energy demand was tremendously growing in this period. Oil and gas started to play an important role as energy sources in the second half of the 20th century. Coal, oil, and gas form today dominant sources of energy. These three energy sources, also known as fossil fuels, are called the traditional energy sources. In this period nuclear energy was introduced as a new source of energy. Increasing and more efficient mass production resulted in the low price of many household products. The consumption of the products grew enormously and therefore it is not surprising that we characterize today society as a consumption society. Nevertheless, it has become evident at the end of the 20th century that the philosophy of human progress that has manifested itself in a huge production and consumption of goods has a negative side too. It has been recognized that a massive consumption of fossil fuels in order to fulfill the present energy demands has a negative impact on the environment. The deterioration of environment is a clear warning that the present realization of human progress has its limitations. The emerging international environmental consciousness was formulated in a concept of a sustainable human progress. The sustainable human progress is defined as: “… to ensure that it (sustainable development) meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”1. A new challenge has emerged at the end of the 20th century that represents a search for and a utilization of new and sustainable energy sources. The urge of this challenge is underlined by limited resources of the fossil fuels on the Earth and increasing demand for energy production. This is the reason why the attention is turning to the renewable energy sources. Energy is an essence of any human activity. When we are interested in how the human civilization has been producing and using energy, we can describe it in terms of an energy system. The main characteristics of the energy system are: the population, the total consumption of energy, and the sources and forms of energy that people use. The energy system at the beginning of the 21st century is characterized by six billion people that live on the Earth and the total energy consumption of approximately 1.3 × 1010 kW. 1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

TITLE PAGE RISK MANAGEMENT AS A STRATEGY FOR PROFIT MAXIMIZATION (A CASE STUDY ACCESS BANK PLC) WRITTEN BY Chinedu j.e. ABSTRACT The study carried out an empirical investigation into the quantitative effect of credit risk on the performance of commercial banks in Nigeria over the period of 11 years 2000\2010.Five commercial banking firms were selected on a cross sectional basis for eleven years. The traditional profit theory was employed to formulate profit, measured by return on asset[ROA], as a function of the ratio of Nonperforming loan to loan and advance [NPLILA], ratio of total loan and advance to total deposit[LA/TD] and the ratio of loan loss provision to classified loans[LLP/TD] as measures of credit risk. Panel model analysis was used to estimate the determinants of the profit function. The result showed that the effect of credit risk on bank performance measure by the return on Assets of banks is cross sectional invariant. That is, the effect is similar across banks in Nigeria, though the degree to which individual banks are affected is not captured by the method of analysis employed in the study. Banks collect deposits and lend to customers but when customer fail to meet their obligations, problem such as non performing loans arise. This study evaluates the impact of credit risk on the profitability of Nigerian banks. The findings revealed that credit risk management has a significant impact on the profitability of Nigeria banks. pls call to get the full material on 08032849308

THE CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF MICRO FINANCE BANK IN THE RURAL AREAS

THE CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF MICRO FINANCE BANK IN THE RURAL AREAS CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Robust economic growth cannot achieved without putting in place a well focused programme to reduce poverty through empowering the people by increasing their access to factors of production especially credit. The lastest capacity of the poor for entrepreneurship would be significantly enhanced through the provision of microfinancve service to enable them engage in economic activities and be more self reliance, increase employment opportunist, enhance household income and create wealth. Micro finance is about providing financial service for the poor who are traditionally not saved by the conventional financial institution. It has three features, these are:  The smallness of loans advanced and savings collected.  The absence of assests based collaterals  Simplicity of operations. In Nigeria, the final financial institutions save about 35% of the economically active population while the remaining 65% are excluded from access for finanmcial service. The non-regulation of the activities of some of those institution has serious implication for the central bank of Nigeria (CBN’S) ABILITY TO EXERCISE ONE ASPECT OF ITS MANDATE OF PROMOTING MONETARY STABILITY AND A SAID FINANCIAL SYSTEM. A micro financial policy which recognizes the existing inamal institution and brings the within the supervisory provision of the CBN would not only enhance monetary stability but also expand the financial requirement of the micro small and medium enterprises (MSME) such sub-sector that should adequately integrate into the main steam of the standard and provide a strategic plat form for the evolution of micro finance institution, npromoting appropriate regulation, supervision and adoption of best practices. In these circumstances, an appropriate policy has become necessary to develop a 1.2 statement of the problems The research study is defined to review the challenges facing micro finance bank in Nigeria as well as their contribution providing financial services to the poor who are not traditionally serve by conventional financial institution. It will also highlight the contribution of micro finance bank in development of rural and urban sector of the society. It will also seek to cover the majority of the poor but economically active population thereby creating millions of job opportunities and reducing poverty. This will also mobilize domestic savings and promote the banking culture among low income grups. If so, how will those rural dwellers benefit from such bankng institution? 1.3 objectives of the study The objectives of the study are stated below: 1. To examine the performance of micro finance bank in the rural and urban area communities and how they affect the lives of the people in that area. 2. To be used in partial fulfillment of award of national diploma in the department of banking and finance. REASEARCH QUESTIONS This research work will provide answers to the following research questions 1. In what way does the micro finance bank help the active poor. 2. Does micro finance bank actually bring developments to the rural dwellers ? 3. Does the government and public benefit from the services rendered by micro finance institution 4. Are they loan requirement stringent for small and modern scale enterprise ? 1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY The significance of this study cannot be over emphasized. It is expected that a number of people and micro finance bank would benefit from it. Firstly, the finding will be used to reshape the financial sector of the country. It will also assists government to modify practice necessary for a healthy banking practice in the urban and rural communities, where micro finance banks operates and the bank customers will also benefit since it will encourage rural banking habit as well as reduces or instill confidence in them. Lastly, it is expected to benefit from banks in Nigeria and student who may research on this topic in future. It will be of particular relevance to the active poor in the society on the issue of micro finance banks is a negative or positive effects. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study will cover a review of challenges and contribution of micro finance bank in develop-ments of the rural areas. Emphasis will be placed on those that operate in the rural areas and how they will be contributing to the rural transformation. For the purpose of the study, we will be looking at the micro finance bank (i.e.) oche micro finance ltd and unique trust micro finance bank all in imo state. 1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY In the course of carrying out this study many problems were encountered. Some the difficulties were strange while some were routine problems. Generally speaking, the problems facing this study are not farfetched. 1 this study should have covered the entire country since the micro finance bank ltd and unique trust micro finance has the whole country as its market but due to the inadequate time needed to cover every aspect of the variable under study to take oche micro finance bank ltd as a case study. 2 there was the problem of ignorance lack of the co operation on the part of respondents 3 inadequate literatures, journals, articles, magazines etc that were published with respect to the contributions and challenges of micro finance bank in the rural areas. 1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS This section will deal with some times which were used for easy comprehensive. Some of these terms are as follows: CAMA- Company and allied matters act CBN- Central bank of Nigeria NGO- Non-governmental organization NAFCC- National micro finance consultation committee MFBS – MICRO FINANCE BANKS DECAP- DEVELOPMENT CAPITAL FUND FINCA- FOUNDATON FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ASSITANCE ACGS –AGRICULTURE CREDIT GUARRANTEES. CBS –COMMUNITY BANKS. FEAP FAMILY ECONOMIC ADVANCEMENT PROGRAMME . NAPER – NATIONALPOVERTY ERADICATION. call for the material on 08032849308

read it here: DISCUSS THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES OF BOKO ...

read it here: DISCUSS THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES OF BOKO ...: ABSTRACT The Boko Haram fundamentalist Islamic group is the first insurgent organization in Nigeria to be classified as a terrorist organiz...

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING INSURANCE IN NIGERIA

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING INSURANCE IN NIGERIA 1. NEGATIVE OR BAD RECORD: Experience has revealed that many insurance companies has failed in their duties of settling their policyholders by giving excuses on the reasons why they should not settle them. Because of this, many would be customers or prospective customers still entertain fears as to the insurance firms abilities to settle their claims when it eventually surface. 2. PREVIOUS RECORD: Past record has shown that individuals do depend on their relatives, friends and well wishers in the area of monetary assistance as to the provision of remedies to their private or business problems which makes it difficult for individuals who desires to attract financial assistance from insurance companies to be discouraged. 3. Attitude: An attitude may be defined as a learned disposition to behave in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way with respect to a given object (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000). Stated differently, it positions people into a frame of mind of liking or disliking things, of moving toward or away from them‘ (Kolter and Armstrong, 2008: p144). It is acknowledged that people have attitudes toward almost everything - religion, politics, clothes, music, food (Kotler, 2003). For instance The demand for life insurance in a country may be affected by the unique culture of the country to the extent that it affects the population‘s risk aversion (Douglas and Wildavski, 1982). Henderson and Milhouse (1987) argue that an individual‘s religion can provide an insight into the individual‘s behaviour; and understanding religion is an important component of understanding a nation‘s unique culture. Also, Zelizer (1979) notes that religion historically has provided a strong source of cultural opposition to life insurance as many religious people believe that a reliance on life insurance results from a distrust of God‘s protecting care. But historically, some form of social insurance existed in Nigerian and Africa society long before the introduction of the modern insurance in Nigeria (Osoka, 1992). These social schemes evolved through the existence of extended family system and social associations such as age grades, and other unions. 4. LACK OF KNOWLEDGE OF INSURANCE CULTURE: In a recent study of quality of life in developing countries with reference to South Africa (Moller, 2004), income and social security (own wages, ability to provide for family, insurance against illness/death and income in old age) have been treated as one of the major indicators of quality of life. This standpoint stresses the significance of insurance to human life. Ironically, insurance services seem not to have been so accepted enthusiastically in developing countries. The abysmal level of insurance culture in developing economies has attracted relative interests among researchers and practitioners alike. Risk has been identified as a central fact of life in the rural areas of less-developed countries (Udry, 1994). 5. LOW LEVEL OF EDUCATION: Educational status of Nigerians has significant influence on their attitude towards insurance. Educated people have more positive attitude to insurance than less educated ones. In a recent insurance conducted in Lagos, Nigeria. The choice of Lagos is due to its nature as a metropolitan city where most Nigerian ethnic groups are largely represented. Fact shows that respondents with higher education outperformed others even though no statistical significant difference was observed with vocational education. 6. UNEMPLOYMENT ISSUE: Employees working status has a significance effect on Nigerians attitude towards insurance. Retired and Employed Nigerians with means attitude scores of 28.50 and 28.14 respectively outperformed their competitors. No significant difference was observed between retired, employed and Self-employed respondents. On the other hand, self-employed people have significantly higher attitude towards insurance than unemployed, student and part time workers. This result is quite similar to findings in most developed world. In Conclusion, The findings of this study suggest some major implications for marketing of insurances services in Nigerian businesses environment which is a big market. Given that attitude is strongly linked to behaviour, marketers of insurance services targeting Nigerians are confronted with the challenge of encouraging people to embrace insurance institution and its associated benefits. Based on the findings, this article confirms negative attitudes of Nigerians to insurance services further. But apart from this broad finding in respect of the negative attitudes to this line of business, this study suggests some specific findings based on different demographical factors of the respondents. The findings serve as inputs to marketers of insurance services on how they formulate and implement relevant marketing strategies towards addressing the nonchalant attitude of Nigerians to insurance. For instance, specific marketing strategies are required to encourage the young generation below 46 years of age, the divorced/separated, and the less-educated to embrace and appreciate the role of insurance. Since, the basic issue associated with this lack of interest rests mainly in their lack of appreciation of the roles of benefits of insurance services; it is recommended that significant marketing communication activities with instant compensation to both marketers be targeted more at this set of people highlighted. This will help to kindle their interest in the business and brings the insurance institution to the highly exalted position it belongs in their perception.

DISCUSS THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES OF BOKO HARAM

ABSTRACT The Boko Haram fundamentalist Islamic group is the first insurgent organization in Nigeria to be classified as a terrorist organization by the United States of America and its allies. Since 2009 the violence the group has unleashed on the Nigerian State is unprecedented in the history of insurgency in the country. Several studies have intellectualized the origin, motive and other activities of this infamous rebellious group. To advance the discourse on Boko Haram, this study examines the measures the Nigerian government has taken so far to address the menace posed by the Boko Haram insurgents. Using library research and interview methods, the findings of the study indicate that first, that the path Government should not follow is using the same methods it used to combat the Niger Delta militants to address the Boko Haram insurgents. Second, that peace negotiation is most unlikely to succeed with insurgents like those of Boko Haram with vile ideologies, whose core demands undermine democracy and good governance. Rather, it is more likely to succeed with insurgent groups pursuing legitimate political or economic based grievances that are capable of deepening democracy and good governance, that is, if Government accepts their core demands. Third, that peace negotiation is most unlikely to succeed with Boko Haram insurgents, since they do not have the capacity to lead a provincial government, after disavowing terrorism. This study strongly recommends that to checkmate the threat posed by Boko Haram insurgents, Government should treat them like terrorists rather than freedom fighters THE HISTORY OF BOKO HARAM Boko Haram, officially called Wilāyat Gharb Ifrīqīyyah West Africa Province, ISWAP), and formerly called Jamā'at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da'wah wa'l-Jihād' "Group of the People of Sunnah for Preaching and Jihad"), is a jihadist group based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. The group is led by Abubakar Shekau. Estimates of the group's membership varies between 7,000 and 10,000 fighters. The group initially had links to al-Qaeda, but in 2014, it expressed support for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant before pledging formal allegiance to it in March 2015. After its founding in 2002, Boko Haram's increasing radicalization led to a violent uprising in July 2009 in which its leader was summarily executed. Its unexpected resurgence, following a mass prison break in September 2010, was accompanied by increasingly sophisticated attacks, initially against soft targets, and progressing in 2011 to include suicide bombings of police buildings and the United Nations office in Abuja. The government's establishment of a state of emergency at the beginning of 2012, extended in the following year to cover the entire northeast of Nigeria, resulted in a marked increase in both security force abuses and militant attacks. Boko Haram killed more than 13,000 civilians between 2009 and 2015, including around 10,000 in 2014, in attacks occurring mainly in northeast Nigeria. The Nigerian military initially proved ineffective in countering the insurgency, hampered by an entrenched culture of official corruption. Since mid-2014, the militants have been in control of swathes of territory in and around their home state of Borno, estimated at 50,000 square kilometres (20,000 sq mi) in January 2015, but have not captured the capital of Borno state, Maiduguri, where the group was originally based. However, after joint military operation with Nigerian Armed Forces, Chadian Armed Forces, Cameroonian Armed Forces, local vigilante groups, local hunters and local fishermen, Boko Haram lost its capital Gwoza and most of its occupied territories while it is still controlling southern parts of Borno State. Boko Haram founding and early years Mohammed Yusuf founded the sect that became known as Boko Haram in 2002 in Maiduguri, the capital of the north-eastern state of Borno. He established a religious complex and school that attracted poor Muslim families from across Nigeria and neighbouring countries. The center had the political goal of creating an Islamic state, and became a recruiting ground for jihadis. By denouncing the police and state corruption, Yusuf attracted followers from unemployed youths. It has been speculated that the reason Yusuf founded Boko Haram appears to be that he saw an opportunity to exploit public outrage at government corruption by linking it to Western influence in governance.[64] He is reported to have used the existing infrastructure in Borno of the Izala Society (Jama'at Izalatil Bidiawa Iqamatus Sunnah), a popular conservative Islamic sect, to recruit members, before breaking away to form his own faction. The Izala were originally welcomed into government, along with people sympathetic to Yusuf. Boko Haram conducted its operations more or less peacefully during the first seven years of its existence, withdrawing from society into remote north-eastern areas. The government repeatedly ignored warnings about the increasingly militant character of the organization. The Council of Ulama advised the government and the Nigerian Television Authority not to broadcast Yusuf's preaching, but their warnings were ignored. Yusuf's arrest elevated him to hero status.. ITS SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES Within the last few years, heightened social insecurity in Nigeria has arguably fuelled the crime rate, leaving unpalatable consequences for the nation’s economy and its growth. For the purpose of definition, insecurity could be described as the presence of fear and absence of economic or physical protection for persons, buildings, organisations or country against destruction or threats like crime or attacks. The rates of terrorist bombings, kidnappings, armed robbery attacks on banks as well as other violent crimes in recent months, have led to a prevalent massive loss of the nation’s human resources. This ugly trend poses a threat to the future of the nation’s agricultural productivity level, private sector investment volume, petroleum sector growth rate, manpower and overall economic development. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, Nigeria’s unemployment rate increased to 23.9 per cent in 2011 compared with 21.1 per cent in 2010 and 19.7 per cent of 2009. The country has a youth population of 80 million, representing about 60 per cent of the total population with a growth rate of 2.6 per cent per year and the national demography suggests that the youth population remains vibrant with an average annual entrant to the labour force at 1.8 million between 2006 and 2011. Several corporate organisations that have human resource policies on workers’ compensation, insurance and other forms of workers’ welfare have deliberately refused to implement them. In most cases, the list of contract staff and expatriates on their payroll far surpasses that of other personnel in a country with disturbing unemployment rate records. The Federal Ministry of Labour has over the years, abandoned its responsibility as regards labour inspection and general supervision of employers in the country. “Malnutrition is the underlying cause of morbidity and mortality of a large proportion of children under-5 in Nigeria. It accounts for more than 50 per cent of deaths of children in this age bracket. The deaths of newborn babies in Nigeria represent a quarter of the total number of deaths of children under-five. The majority of these occur within the first week of life, mainly due to complications during pregnancy and delivery reflecting the intimate link between newborn survival and the quality of maternal care. Similarly, a woman’s chance of dying from pregnancy and childbirth in Nigeria is 1 in 13. Amidst this alarming level of social insecurity, the wide gap between the few corrupt rich citizens and the poor is further being widened. For instance, the value of private properties acquired with public funds which have been obviously looted by a few ex-public office holders without rebuke, is scaring. Private aircraft owned only by a few politicians, businessmen and clergymen are also estimated to have grown in the country from about 20 in year 2000 to over 150 in 2012, at a time when many Nigerians are living below the poverty line. Massive loss of human resources and its effect as well as government’s unimpressive response to the various forms of crime do not offer hopes that the nation is likely to realize its short and long term economic targets. The 2012 Report from Amnesty International indicates that Nigeria recorded 215 deaths from violent attacks by suspected members of the Boko Haram sect between June and December 2011. Kidnapping has equally increased in both frequency and scope, especially in the Niger Delta states and the south eastern part of the country. Conclusions First, the group may have been nurtured from outside. Sources in the Maiduguri religious establishment say it is possible that money from Salafist groups in Saudi Arabia supported it in the early years. It appears that Boko Haram members also received training in rebel camps in the Sahel during a time of crisis for the group. Second, Boko Haram has grown at a time when there are many national issues that draw anger and feed the group. This includes the continued killing and corruption perpetrated by the police on people connected to the group; the brutal manner in which the police behave to the public at large; the financial corruption of the government; the moral corruption of the religious establishment (as perceived by Boko Haram); a festering conflict in Plateau state. Now that the group has expanded beyond a small number of mosques, radical reforms in policing strategy are necessary if there is to be any progress in gaining intelligence about where—and who—the group is. Indeed, widespread radical reform of the police is long overdue throughout Nigeria. REFERENCES Akpan, F. (2000). Ethnic minority and the Nigerian state: The Ogoni Struggle after Ken Saro-Wiwa. In O. Okome (Ed.), Before I am Hanged Ken Saro-Wiwa: Literature, politics and dissent. Trenton: African World Press Inc Al Jazeera Cable News Network. Bartolotta, C. (2011). Terrorism in Nigeria: The rise of Boko Haram. The Whiteheard Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. Campbell, J. (2013, October). Should U.S. fear Boko Haram?. CNN. Channel Televison News Programme. (2013, December 20). Chothia, F. (2012). Who are Nigeria’s Boko Haram Islamist?. BBC News. Herskovits, J. (2012). In Nigeria, Boko Haram is not the problem. The New York Times. Ibeanu, O. (2001). Oiling the friction: Environmental conflict management in Nigeria Delta. Nigeria Environmental Change and Security Project Report, (6). Jonathan, G. (2013, December 23). RE: Before it is too late. Premium Times. Murtaza, N. (2013). Terrorism: Flawed theories. Retrieved from www.dawn.com/news.

STATE VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANT AND DISCUSS THEIR EFFECT ON HUMAN

INTRODUCTION The first week of December 1952 was unusually cold in London, so residents burned large quantities of coal in their fireplaces to keep warm. Early on December 5, moisture in the air began condensing into fog near the ground. The fog mixed with smoke from domestic fires and emissions from factories and diesel-powered buses. Normally the fog would have risen higher in the atmosphere and dispersed, but cold air kept it trapped near the ground. Over the next four days, the smog became so thick and dense that many parts of London were brought to a standstill. Public officials did not realize that the Great Smog was the most deadly air pollution event on record until mortality figures were published several weeks afterward. Some 4,000 people died in London between December 5-9 of illnesses linked to respiratory problems such as bronchitis and pneumonia, and the smog's effects caused another 8,000 deaths over the next several months. Samples showed that victims' lungs contained high levels of very fine particles, including carbon material and heavy metals such as lead, zinc, tin, and iron. Air pollution was not news in 1952—London's air had been famously smoky for centuries—but the Great Smog showed that it could be deadly. The event spurred some of the first governmental actions to reduce emissions from fuel combustion, industrial operations, and other manmade sources. Over the past half-century, scientists have learned much more about the causes and impacts of atmospheric pollution. Many nations have greatly reduced their emissions, but the problem is far from solved. In addition to threatening human health, air pollutants damage ecosystems, weaken Earth's stratospheric ozone shield, and contribute to global climate change Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into Earth's atmosphere, causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources. Primary Air Pollutants Primary air pollutants are emitted directly into the air from sources. They can have effects both directly and as precursors of secondary air pollutants (chemicals formed through reactions in the atmosphere), which are discussed in the following section. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas formed when sulfur is exposed to oxygen at high temperatures during fossil fuel combustion, oil refining, or metal smelting. SO2 is toxic at high concentrations, but its principal air pollution effects are associated with the formation of acid rain and aerosols. SO2 dissolves in cloud droplets and oxidizes to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which can fall to Earth as acidrain or snow or form sulfate aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Associated impacts are discussedbelow in Section 5, "Aerosols," and Section 7, "Acid Deposition." Nitrogen oxides(NO and NO2, referred together as NOx) are highly reactive gases formed when oxygen and nitrogen react at high temperatures during combustion or lightning strikes. Nitrogen present in fuel can also be emitted as NOX during combustion. Emissions are dominated by fossil fuel combustion at northern mid-latitudes and by biomass burning in the tropics. shows the distribution of NOx emissions to the atmosphere in 2006 as determined by satellite measurements of atmospheric NO2concentrations. In the atmosphere NOX reacts with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide to produce ground-level ozone through a complicated chain reaction mechanism. It is eventually oxidized to nitric acid (HNO3). Like sulfuric acid, nitric acid contributes to acid deposition and to aerosol formation. Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless gas formed by incomplete combustion of carbon in fuel. The main source is motor vehicle exhaust, along with industrial processes and biomass burning. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, reducing their ability to transport and release oxygen throughout the body. Low exposures can aggravate cardiac ailments, while high exposures cause central nervous system impairment or death. It also plays a role in the generation of ground-level ozone,.Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including hydrocarbons (CxHy) but also other organic chemicals are emitted from a very wide range of sources, including fossil fuel combustion, industrial activities, and natural emissions from vegetation and fires. Some anthropogenic VOCs such as benzene are known carcinogens. Secondary Air Pollutants Secondary pollutants form when primary pollutants react in the atmosphere. Table 1 summarizes common forms of atmospheric reactions. For reactions to take place, molecules have to collide. However, gases are present in the atmosphere at considerably lower concentrations than are typical for laboratory experiments or industrial processes, so molecules collide fairly infrequently. As a result, most atmospheric reactions that occur at significant rates involve at least one radical —a molecule with an odd number of electrons and hence an unpaired electron in its outer shell. The unpaired electron makes the radical unstable and highly reactive with other molecules. Radicals are formed when stable molecules are broken apart, a process that requires large amounts of energy. Pollutant Sources Effects Ozone. A gas that can be found in two places. Near the ground (the troposphere), it is a major part of smog. The harmful ozone in the lower atmosphere should not be confused with the protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), which screens out harmful ultraviolet rays. Ozone is not created directly, but is formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone is mostly found in the summer. Nitrogen oxides come from burning gasoline, coal, or other fossil fuels. There are many types of volatile organic compounds, and they come from sources ranging from factories to trees. Ozone near the ground can cause a number of health problems. Ozone can lead to more frequent asthma attacks in people who have asthma and can cause sore throats, coughs, and breathing difficulty. It may even lead to premature death. Ozone can also hurt plants and crops. Carbon monoxide. A gas that comes from the burning of fossil fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be seen or smelled. Carbon monoxide is released when engines burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of the carbon monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces and heaters in the home can emit high concentrations of carbon monoxide, too, if they are not properly maintained. Carbon monoxide makes it hard for body parts to get the oxygen they need to run correctly. Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people feel dizzy and tired and gives them headaches. In high concentrations it is fatal. Elderly people with heart disease are hospitalized more often when they are exposed to higher amounts of carbon monoxide. Nitrogen dioxide. A reddish-brown gas that comes from the burning of fossil fuels. It has a strong smell at high levels. Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from power plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in two ways—when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, or when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at very high temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, acid rain, and particles. High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure can give people coughs and can make them feel short of breath. People who are exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long time have a higher chance of getting respiratory infections. Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain, which can harm plants and animals. Particulate matter. Solid or liquid matter that is suspended in the air. To remain in the air, particles usually must be less than 0.1-mm wide and can be as small as 0.00005 mm. Particulate matter can be divided into two types—coarse particles and fine particles. Coarse particles are formed from sources like road dust, sea spray, and construction. Fine particles are formed when fuel is burned in automobiles and power plants. Particulate matter that is small enough can enter the lungs and cause health problems. Some of these problems include more frequent asthma attacks, respiratory problems, and premature death. Sulfur dioxide. A corrosive gas that cannot be seen or smelled at low levels but can have a “rotten egg” smell at high levels. Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning of coal or oil in power plants. It also comes from factories that make chemicals, paper, or fuel. Like nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain and particles. Sulfur dioxide exposure can affect people who have asthma or emphysema by making it more difficult for them to breathe. It can also irritate people's eyes, noses, and throats. Sulfur dioxide can harm trees and crops, damage buildings, and make it harder for people to see long distances. Lead. A blue-gray metal that is very toxic and is found in a number of forms and locations. Outside, lead comes from cars in areas where unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also come from power plants and other industrial sources. Inside, lead paint is an important source of lead, especially in houses where paint is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a source of lead in drinking water. High amounts of lead can be dangerous for small children and can lead to lower IQs and kidney problems. For adults, exposure to lead can increase the chance of having heart attacks or strokes. Toxic air pollutants. A large number of chemicals that are known or suspected to cause cancer. Some important pollutants in this category include arsenic, asbestos, benzene, and dioxin. Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly different source, but many are created in chemical plants or are emitted when fossil fuels are burned. Some toxic air pollutants, like asbestos and formaldehyde, can be found in building materials and can lead to indoor air problems. Many toxic air pollutants can also enter the food and water supplies. Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer. Some toxic air pollutants can also cause birth defects. Other effects depend on the pollutant, but can include skin and eye irritation and breathing problems. Stratospheric ozone depleters. Chemicals that can destroy the ozone in the stratosphere. These chemicals include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other compounds that include chlorine or bromine. CFCs are used in air conditioners and refrigerators, since they work well as coolants. They can also be found in aerosol cans and fire extinguishers. Other stratospheric ozone depleters are used as solvents in industry. If the ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, people are exposed to more radiation from the sun (ultraviolet radiation). This can lead to skin cancer and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet radiation can also harm plants and animals. Greenhouse gases. Gases that stay in the air for a long time and warm up the planet by trapping sunlight. This is called the “greenhouse effect” because the gases act like the glass in a greenhouse. Some of the important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas. It comes from the burning of fossil fuels in cars, power plants, houses, and industry. Methane is released during the processing of fossil fuels, and also comes from natural sources like cows and rice paddies. Nitrous oxide comes from industrial sources and decaying plants. The greenhouse effect can lead to changes in the climate of the planet. Some of these changes might include more temperature extremes, higher sea levels, changes in forest composition, and damage to land near the coast. Human health might be affected by diseases that are related to temperature or by damage to land and water. CONCLUSION Air pollutants are major contributors to climate change. This connection is well known to scientists, although it has not yet permeated environmental policy. Figure 19 shows global climate forcing for the year 2000, relative to 1850, caused by different observed perturbations to the Earth system. Climate forcing from a given perturbation is defined as the mean resulting imbalance between energy input and energy output per unit time and unit area of Earth's surface (watts per square meter or W/m2), with all else remaining constant, including temperature. A positive radiative forcing means a decrease in energy output and hence a warming,. Negative radiative forcing,means a decrease in energy input and hence a cooling. Among the major greenhouse gases in Figure 19 are methane and tropospheric ozone, which are both of concern for air quality. Light absorption by black carbon aerosol particles also has a significant warming effect. Taken together these three agents produce more radiative forcing than CO2 . Reductions in these air pollutants thus would reap considerable benefit for climate change. However, air pollutants can also have a cooling effect that compensates for greenhouse warming. This factor can be seen from the negative radiative forcings due to non light-absorbing sulfate and organic aerosols originating from fossil fuel combustion. Scattering by these aerosols is estimated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to have a direct radiative forcing of -1.3 W/m2 , although this figure is highly uncertain. Indirect radiative forcing from increased cloud reflectivity due to anthropogenic aerosols is even more uncertain but could be as large as -1 W/m2. Scattering aerosols have thus masked a significant fraction of the warming imposed by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases over the past two centuries. Aerosol and acid rain control policies, though undeniably urgent to protect public health and ecosystems, will reduce this masking effect and expose us to more greenhouse warming. Influence also runs the other way. Global climate change has the potential to magnify air pollution problems by raising Earth's temperature (contributing to tropospheric ozone formation) and increasing the frequency of stagnation events. Climate change is also expected to cause more forest fires and dust storms, which can cause severe air quality problems References "Reports". WorstPolluted.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29. "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution". WHO. 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014. Evidence growing of air pollution's link to heart disease, death at the Wayback Machine (archived June 3, 2010) // American Heart Association. May 10, 2010 "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-29. "Infant Inhalation Of Ultra-fine Air Pollution Linked To Adult Lung Disease". Sciencedaily.com. 2009-07-23. Retrieved 2010-08-29. "The Effect of Changing Background Emissions on External Cost Estimates for Secondary Particulates" (PDF). Open environmental sciences. 2008. David Pennise and Kirk Smith. "Biomass Pollution Basics" (PDF). WHO. "Indoor air pollution and household energy". WHO and UNEP. 2011. Goldstein, Allen H., Charles D. Koven, Colette L. Heald, Inez Y. Fung (2009-05-05). "Biogenic carbon and anthropogenic pollutants combine to form a cooling haze over the southeastern United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 2010-12-05. Scientific American, June 2014, p. 14 "AP 42, Volume I". Epa.gov. Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29. "United Kingdom's emission factor database". Naei.org.uk. Retrieved 2010-08-29.

PROSPECT OF WIND ENERGY GENERATION IN NIGERIA

PROSPECTS OF WIND ENERGY GENERATION IN NIGERIA BY Chinedu J.E ABSTRACT About 90% of the Nigerian economy is dependent on crude oil. Expectedly, most of her generating plants are thermal power stations which are presently operating below installed capacity. This paper therefore looks at the prospects of wind energy in Nigeria. The wind speed data collected from some towns in Nigeria indicates that the country has good sites for the installation of wind energy conversion systems. The paper recommends the incorporation of wind energy in the renewable energy resources development programme of a developing economy like Nigeria. This would be a way of boosting her energy needs, as well as accelerating the sluggish nature of the nation’s rural electrification programmes. TABLE OF CONTENT ABSTRACT CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY GENERATION IN NIGERIA 2.3 PERFORMANCE OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY IN NIGERIA 2.4 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY GENERATION 2.5 Wind Power in Nigeria 2.6 Wind Power utilization today 2.7 The future of wind energy system CHAPTER THREE 3.0 WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIALS IN NIGERIA POWER IN THE WIND WIND ENERGY POTENTIALS IN NIGERIA 3.2 METHOD 3.3 RESULTS CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION MERITS OF WIND POWER REFERENCES CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION For the past ten years, the Federal government of Nigeria has embarked on aggressive rural electrification projects across the country. This laudable project is aimed at providing electricity to the rural dwellers where about 64% of the entire populations live. By this programme also, the Federal government hopes to minimize, if not curb the rural –urban migration—thereby forcing young school leavers and graduates to remain in the village self-employed rather than moving to the urban areas seeking white-collar jobs [1]. Often, however, the pace of rural electrification is far slower than rural people and the Federal government of Nigeria would like. Rural electrification is difficult because it is capital intensive and has unfavourable short-term economics. As is normally the case, with large central Power plants and grid-extension programs, rural electrification programs can easily fall victim to construction difficulties, routing impediments, competition from urban/industrial power demands, and a lack of implementation flexibility [2]. This conventional system of using large centrally located power plants and grid extension for rural electrification is currently being challenged by the advent of smaller, modular technologies such as wind power, micro-hydro and photovoltaics. This paper looks at the conventional energy generation as well as the wind energy potential in Nigeria. It highlights the importance of wind energy as a way of accelerating the sluggish nature of the Federal government of Nigeria rural electrification programmes. Relevant conclusions are made using available wind speed data collected at the various sites in Nigeria. 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Energy major impact on every aspect of our socio-economic life. It plays a vital role in the economic, social and political development of our nation [1]. Despite the abundance of energy resources in Nigeria, the country is still in short supply of electrical power. Only about 40% of the nation’s over 140 million has access to grid electricity [2]. Even the electricity supply to the consumers that are connected to the grid is erratic. There is therefore the need to harness renewable energy potential (such as wind, solar e.t.c) for reliable power supply in this country. Also the concern about global warming and continued apprehensions about nuclear power around the world should drive us into strong demand for wind generation. Wind turbine converts wind energy into electrical energy, which is fed into electricity supply system. The main advantages of electricity generation from renewable energy sources, such as wind, are the absence of harmful emissions, very clean and almost infinite availability of wind that is converted into electricity [3]. Wind generation has been described to be one of the mature and cost effective resources among different renewable energy technologies [4].Wind is a natural phenomenon related to the movement of air masses caused primarily by the differential solar heating of the earth's surface [5]. Wind is a classical example of a stochastic variable; due to this stochastic nature, wind energy cannot be controlled, but can be managed. This is because wind power is available only when the wind speed is above a certain threshold [6]. This paper therefore describes the wind energy potential in Nigeria and the conditions to be met before the wind generator can be connected to the existing grid and how it can be connected. The effect the new generation source might have on the existing power network will also be discussed. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The various wind generator projects in Nigeria were neglected in the last decade due to increasing popularity and low price of crude oil. Inrecent times the high price of Petroleum products lead to attempt at restructuring these windmills [5, 6]. However, difficulties in obtaining spare parts for models which were no longer being manufactured hindered the restoration. Also, some other factors that led to the failure of past wind generators are the assessment of wind energy potentials, feasibility studies on wind energy utilization , inadequate wind data base used as the bases for designing and building different prototypes that need be considered in reducing locally manufactured windmills. 2.1 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY GENERATION IN NIGERIA The bulk of the supply for electrical energy in the country has been from the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA). It expands annually in order to meet the ever increasing demand [3]. Presently, that task is being performed by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria, PHCN. Energy production and consumption in Nigeria has been on the increase. 2.3 PERFORMANCE OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY IN NIGERIA At present, the installed and available electrical capacity in the Nigerian generating stations are shown in Table 1. It shows that despite a total grid capacity of 5924.7 MW, only 4586 MW were available. Thus 22% of the installed capacity was unavailable. This may be due to operational inadequacies and inability of units to operate at full capacities of the generating stations and their respective percentage contributions to the total energy products. Table 1: Generating plants—Grid Stations Key: + = Operational inactive Site Type Installed capacity [MW] Available capacity [MW] Number of units Afam Thermal 700 488 18 Delta Thermal 812 540 20 Egbin Thermal 1320 1100 6 Ijora Thermal 66.7 40 3 Sapele Thermal 1020 790 10 Jebba Hydro 540 450 6 Kainji Hydro 760 560 12 Shiroro Hydro 600 600 6 + Orji River Thermal 60 - 4 Others Diesel 46 18 - 2.4 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY GENERATION The use of conventional methods in electrical power generation has a number of advantages: 1 Hydro plants have lower operating and maintenance costs since no fuel and steam generators are needed. 2 Hydro plants are quicker to start up on load and are also quicker to shut down for maintenance. 3 Hydro plants are less prone to fire outbreak because of the absence of fuel. 4 Thermal power stations which are built on much smaller areas of land than hydro stations have fewer resettlement and compensation problems 5 Thermal stations have lower installation costs. 6 Installation can more easily be brought closer to a land centre for thermal plants. 7 The use of nuclear fuel does not require combustion air, avoiding thermal stack losses and related problems. The demerits of conventional energy generation are: 1 Hydro plants depend for sustained operation on in-flow of water into the storage and this in-flow can be affected up stream by drought and outside the borders of this nation, by political or other considerations. 2 The pollution arising in the case of thermal stations from combustion of fuel is not environment-friendly due to the fact that sulphur oxides, heavy metals, radio-active elements, hydro carbons and large quantities of cabon dioxide are emitted which leads to acid rain. 3 Fossil and nuclear fuels are finite and non-renewable energy sources [4]. 4 Burned nuclear fuel is radioactive, it requires remote handling and special processing and disposal of toxic waste. 5 Special system designs are required to prevent radioactivity release during normal operation or due to accidents. 6 Major portions of a nuclear plant are radioactive during and after operation, requiring special precautions and advanced technology for maintenance of much of the plant. 2.5 Wind Power in Nigeria Nigeria is blessed with abundant fossil fuel (oil and gas) and the Government investment in power generation had been mainly restricted to thermal coal plants, gas plants and hydro power stations. Adegoke and Anjorin (1996) investigated the prospects of wind energy utilization in Nigeria by analyzing available wind data for Akure, Bauchi and Port Harcourt and observed that the average wind speed measured at 10metres height above the ground for Bauchi is 4.78m/s, Port Harcourt is 2.56m/s and that for Akure is 0.76m/s. It was concluded that Bauchi favours the installation of wind turbines more than Port Harcourt and Akure and that the variation of annual mean wind speed is much lower for Port Harcourt than it is for Bauchi implying that wind turbines installed in Port Harcourt would function more regularly over several years. Wind speeds of not less than 2.22m/s have been found to be favourable for uses of windmills in northern Nigeria although this may strictly apply to the type of windmill tested. It has also been reported that most windmills would not start at wind speeds less than 3m/s (Ejieji, 2006). The National Energy Commission of Nigeria (NECN) is presently leading Research and Development (R&D) efforts in developing indigenous technology in wind energy conversion systems. 2.6 Wind Power utilization today The expected global shortage of oil and coal after World War II did not happen. Instead the prices of oil fell in the 1960’s. Energy consumption was increasing drastically as was the general growth and wealth in the industrialized countries. It therefore took a serious energy crisis before wind power once again was put back on the agenda. This turn around came in October 1973, when Egyptian troops crossed the Suez Canal entering Sinai, which Israel had occupied during the 6-day war in 1967. A war in the Middle East had started and this time oil was used as a weapon in the conflict. Throughout the 1950’s and 1960’s Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) had gradually gained more and more control of oil and it subsequently decided to raise oil prices and introduced an oil embargo on countries supporting Israel. The resulting supply problems and rising prices not only caused downward market conditions in the Western world but also proved just how vulnerable and dependent these countries had become on the import of oil. Wind power was therefore soon back to reckoning. 2.7 The future of wind energy system In the years to come, the prime resource for generation of wind power will not be wind but windy sites. With only limited sites suitable for wind power generation available, it makes better sense to develop technologies, which will increase the efficiency of wind electric generators. The developments in turbine technology coupled with optimization techniques will lead to higher energy densities. Also it is expected that in future the power quality issues in grid interfacing wind electric generators will be addressed and power quality devices will be inbuilt into the turbines. The global wind energy installed capacity has increased exponentially over a 25-year period, and in the process the cost of energy (COE) from wind power plants has been reduced by an order of magnitude. Wind energy installations in the United States have grown during the past decade from about 1800 MW in 1990 to more than 6,000 MW at the end of 2003(Musial et. al, 2004). Offshore wind turbines have a number of advantages over onshore ones. The size of onshore turbines is constrained by capacity limitations of the available transportation and erection equipment. Transportation and erection problems are mitigated offshore where the size and lifting capacities of marine shipping and handling equipment still exceed the installation requirements for multi-megawatt wind turbines. The visual appearance of massive turbines in populated areas may be undesirable. At a sufficient distance from the coast, visual intrusion is minimized and wind turbines can be larger, thus increasing the overall installed capacity per unit area. Similarly, less attention needs to be devoted to reduce turbine noise emissions offshore, which adds significant costs to onshore wind turbines. Also, the wind tends to blow faster and more uniformly at sea than on land. A higher, steadier wind means less wear on the turbine components and more electricity generated per square meter of swept rotor area can be integrated to the national grid. Onshore turbines are often located in remote areas, where the electricity must be transmitted by relatively long power lines to densely populated regions, but offshore turbines can be located close to high-value urban load centers, simplifying transmission issues. On the negative side of offshore development, investment costs are higher and accessibility is more difficult, resulting in higher capital and maintenance costs. Also, environmental conditions at sea are more severe: more corrosion ice. And obviously, offshore construction is more complicated. Despite the difficulties of offshore development, it holds great promise for expanding wind generation capacity. CHAPTER THREE 3.0 WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIALS IN NIGERIA POWER IN THE WIND The theoretical power in the wind is given by [7]-[14] ρπ ( (1) where Pae is the aerodynamic power extracted from the airflow [Watt], ρ is the air density [typically 1.225Kg/m3] Cp is the power coefficient which is the fraction of power in the wind captured by a wind turbine, which depends on the pitch angle θpitch [degree] and on the tip speed ratio, is given by λ = (2) i.e it is the ratio between the blade tip speed *R and the equivalent wind speed Veq [m/s2], R is the rotor radius; Cp is equal to 0.59 which means, the 59% of wind power is the maximum power that a wind turbine can utilize. Equation (1) shows that the power which a particular wind turbine can extract from wind is a cubic function of the wind speed. Once the aerodynamic power is determined, the aerodynamic torque can be calculated directly according to = = ρπ ( (3) The mechanical input can be chosen as either the mechanical power or the mechanical torque, and then the other quantity can be calculated using equation 3 [15]. WIND ENERGY POTENTIALS IN NIGERIA The technologies for harnessing wind energy have, over the years, been tried in the northern parts of the country, mainly for water pumping from open wells in many secondary schools of old Sokoto and Kano States as well as in Katsina, Bauchi and Plateau States. Other areas of “potential application” of wind energy conversion systems in Nigeria are in Green electricity (which is the type of electricity produced from renewable source that is environmentally friendly and non-polluting) production for the rural community and for integration into the national grid system. In 1998, a 5-kW wind electricity conversion system for village electrification has been installed at Sayyan Gidan Gada, in Sokoto State [16]. According to the report of Lahmeyer (International) Consultants [17], wind energy reserve in Nigeria at 10m (or 40m) height based on data analyzed for ten wind stations cutting across North West, North East, North Central, South East and South West geopolitical zones shows that some sites have wind regime between 1.0 and5.1m/s (1.0 and 6.3m/s) depending on the particular stations, and still confirms that Nigeria falls into the moderate wind regime. Wind energy resources mapping for ten (10) sites in Nigeria including Sokoto collected from on ground measurement carried out between May 2004 and May 2005 also by Lahmeyer International. It can be seen from the table that the sites are potential wind farm areas. This is because most wind turbines start generating electricity at wind speeds of around 3-4 meters per second (m/s) [18]. It was reported that offshore areas from Lagos State through Ondo, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa to AkwaIbom states also have potentials for harvesting strong wind energy throughout the year. Detailed wind speed measurements and data carried out in Nigeria in some hilly and coastal areas have shown an excellent wind potential for implementation of wind farms in those areas. Table II below shows the wind energy density estimate at 25m height. It can also be seen from the table that Sokoto and Jos have the annual wind energy from wind turbine (kWh) of 97,035.94 and 94,559.98 respectively [19]. These figures are also in agreement with Ojosu and Salawu survey of wind energy potentials in Nigeria [20]. A number of authors [19] - [23] recommended base on the wind speeds that these potential wind farm areas should be connected to the grid (at Distribution level). The Director General of Energy commission of Nigeria in a Paper presented at International Association for Energy Economics Third quarter 2009 [21] still lamented that these renewable Energy resources most especially wind have not been integrated to the Nigeria grid. Table I. showing ranking of the wind speed at various measurement stations [17]. Site ID Site Name Measured mean wind speed at 30m Height (m/s) Sok 01 Sokoto/Badaga 5.4 Jos 01 Jos Airport/ Kassa 5.2 Gem 01 Gembu/Mambila plateau 5.0 Pan 01 South part of Jos plateau/Pankshin Hotel 5.0 Kan 01 Kano/ Funtua 4.9 Mai 01 Maiduguri/mainok 4.7 Lag 01 Lagos/ Lekki Beach 4.7 Enu 01 Enugu/Nineth mile corner 4.6 Gum 01 Gumel/ Garki 4.1 Ibi 01 Ibi metrological station 3.6 3.2 METHOD In an attempt to discover wind energy potential in the country, several sites (Enugu, Jos, Ikeja, Abuja, Warri, Sokoto and Calabar) which differ in natural conditions and having different wind characteristics were selected for this study. Figures 1-7 show the wind speed graphs for various stations from 2000 to 2003. 3.3 RESULTS From the graphs, it was discovered that the annual wind mean speed at a height of 10m above the ground ranges between 2.3m/s to 3.4m/s for sites along the costal areas and 3.0m/s to 3.9m/s for high land areas and semi-arid regions. The analysis carried out on the data shows that the monthly average wind power can be as high as 50.1W/m 2. Small wind energy conversion systems for pumping water, irrigation and small agricultural industries are recommended for small communities living in isolated areas around the selected sites. It was also discovered that the wind turbine can generate up to 97MWh per year in Sokoto, a site in a high wind speed regions [7]. Therefore, using wind energy conversion systems for electric power generation and supply in Nigeria—especially around the Sokoto axis will be cost effective. Similarly, after analysis of wind potential of a town near Jos, it was discovered that the maximum power intensity which could be extracted from the wind inthe area was found to be 14.23W/m2 out of the estimated available wind power intensity of 24.00W/m2 .The amount of energy density available in the wind has also been estimated to be 1126.28KWh/year. These results suggest that Heipany, a town in Jos, is an ideal location for construction of wind mills. CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 1. The use of wind power for the supply of electricity broadens the energy base and reduces environmental pollution. It is particularly practical if it can be made economically competitive with conventional energy sources [8]. 2. The use of wind energy will be suitable for rural farming companies that require lighting and some limited supply of electricity which will be costly to get due to the location of farms [9]. 3. Several researchers [10, 11] have shown that in areas with annual mean windspeeds of 3.5m/s-4.0m/s or greater, wind power systems can usually deliver electricityor pump water at costs lower than photovoltaics, diesels, or grid –extension. 4. Wind energy conversion systems (WECs) provide power source for unattended remote sensing stations, such as weather stations which periodically transmits metrological data. 5. In remote areas, where purchased electricity is simply unavailable, wind energy may well be the only alternative. 6. WECs enjoy flexibilities in implementation, lower life-cycle energy cost, reduced dependence on fuel supplies and the possibility of local production and support. 4.1. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION MERITS OF WIND POWER By using metrological data collected from some selected weather stations in Nigeria, analysis of such data shows that wind power prospects in Nigeria is high. From the analysis also, it was clearly seen that costal and hilly areas are excellent sites for wind power development. Therefore, using WECs for electric power generation and supply in Nigeria—especially around Sokoto axis with mean wind speed of about 3.78m/s, will be cost effective. Considering the prospect of wind energy in a developing economy like Nigeria, the following recommendations are made: 1. Excellent sites such as Jos and Sokoto should have a wind power plant for the generation of electricity which should be integrated with the existing national grid. 2. Wind energy resources should be included in the renewable energy resources development programme of Nigeria. 3. The Nation’s energy centres should be encouraged through funding in order to stimulate research efforts on WECs and manufacture. 4. Issues relating to energy should be handled by experts. 5. The government should set up independent policy makers on renewable energy, whose tasks will be to monitor the Nation’s energy centres as well as to encourage the Energy Commission of Nigeria, ECN to embark on intensive human resource training on areas of need. REFERENCES [1] Fagbenle,R.L.: “Prospects and problems of solarizing transport technology”. Nigerian Journal of Renewable Energy, Vol. 2, No.1, 1991, pp. 79-84. [2] Bergey,M.L.S.: “Small wind Turbines for rural energy supply in Developing Countries”, Journal of Renewable Energy for Agriculture and Health, 1999, pp. 1-6. [3] Okoro, O.I. and Madueme, T.C.: “Solar energy investments in a developing economy”,Renewable Energy 29, 2004, pp. 1599-1610. [4] Davidson,I.E. and Oni, J.O.: “Energy conversion strategies and alternative sources for Africa”, Nigerian Journal of Renewable Energy, Vol. 2, No.1, 1991, pp. 85-90. [5] Ojosu,J.O. and Salawu, R. I.: “Wind energy development in Nigeria”, Nigerian Journal of Solar Energy, Vol. 9, 1990, pp.209-222. [6] Enibe, S.O.: “A method of Assessing the Wind Energy potentials in a Nigeria location”, Nigerian Journal of Solar Energy, Vol. 6, 1987, pp.14-17. [7] Ezeugwu, D.U.: “Wind Energy prospects in a developing economy”, B.Eng. Thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, September 2004. 8. Golding E.W (1976). The generation of electricity by wind power. E&F.N SPON Ltd, London. [9. Anders A (April, 2005). “Aerolastic Simulation of Wind Turbine Dynamics”. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Mechanics, Royal Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm Sweden. 10. Carlin P.W, Laxson A.S and Muljadi E.B (February 2001). “The History and State of Art of Variable-speed Wind Turbine Technology”. NREL/TP-500-28607.Technical Report. 11. Andersen, Per Dannemand. “Review of Historical and Modern Utilization of Wind Power”. Available at www.risoe.dk/rispubl/VEA/dannemand.html, accessed on 12th February 2007.

PRICINING DECISION AND CONTRIBUTION THEORY

PRICINING DECISION AND CONTRIBUTION THEORY Product pricing enable organizations make appropriate pricing decision. It must be done with good product cost knowledge, otherwise it will not be done intelligently. FACTOR AFFECTING PRODUCT PRICING 1. DEMAND FOR THE PRODUCT: The quantity for which the product is demended if known would go a long way to given an idea at which price they would be sold. 2. LEVEL OF ACTIVITY: The level of activity of the firm is also a determinant factor. 3. AVAILABILITY OF SUBSTITUTES: Here, when there exists a close substitute, the price of which product is fixed having in mind the existence of such substitute price. 4. CHANGES IN DEMAND AND SUPPLY: This means whether the demand for the product is elastic or inelastic. METHOD OF COSTS USED BY COMPANY FOR PRICING 1. TOTAL COST METHOD: Under this method, selling price is based on the total costs. It is suitable for long term pricing as full cost are recovered and profit is maximized in the long run. It also tends to stabilize the price in the market 2. COVERSION COST METHOD: Is based on the basis that because materials do not earn any profit, profits should be related to the services performed. That is the value added in the form of conversion cost. 3. MARGINAL COST METHOD: The method here is flexible in its approach. It is mostly useful in the short-term period. Rising of prices lowers demands and the corresponding revenue. 4. DIFFERENT COST METHOD: This is the change in the costs which result from the adoption of an alternative course of action. Alternative action may arise due to change in volume price, product mix, or sales promotion, or refuse decision. 5. LEARNING CURVE METHOD: This method is another technique developed for the pricing of products in firms which undertake large and costly non-report orders which vary in size. OBJECTIVES OF INTRA COMPANY TRANSFER PRICING 1. Current performance evaluation 2. To produce or buy 3. Improvement of profit position 4. Accurate estimate of earnings 5. Divisional autonomy TOTAL COST PLUS A PERCENTAGE OF PROFIT METHOD The method consists in adding a suitable specific percentage in profit to the cost of transfer. Let us assume, for example, that 4000 units of a product manufactured annually by a plant costing N800 are retransferred to another unit and that the rate of return on the capital is expected to be 20% per annum. If the cost of the units transferred be N5.00 each, the transfer price will be. FORMULA Transfer price=unit cost + capital employed x rate of return Total unit produced. Tp=N 5 + 8000 x 20 400units 100 = 5+2x0.2 = 5+0.4 = N 5.4 MARKET PRICE METHOD This is a rational method which is based on the principle of opportunity cost market price, wherever, available may be adopted for pricing intra-company transfers. It consignor gets a fair reward and an incentive for efficient production. In this method no time is lost in bargaining and there no dispute about transfer prices. DIFFICUTIES AND LIMITATION OF MARKET PRICE METHOD 1. It is difficult in obtaining market price 2. It market price consist of elements of selling and distribution expenses such as commission, bad debt and ware house cost. 3. It adjustment in choosing stock is required to be made for the profit included. BALANCE PRICE METHOD Here the transfer price is negotiated between the consignor and consignee departments, as if the two were independent undertaking trying to make the best of the bargain. In theis method the managers feel recognized in the scheme of affairs and hence are method towards putting in their best. LIMITATIONS ON THE BARGAINED PRICE METHOD. 1. Non-availability of suitable price quotations from outside source. 2. Quotations may not be reliable. 3. The transfer price is dependent not only on the productive ability but also on the negotiating ability of the departmental manager. ACCOUNTING FOR INTER-PROCESS PROFIT When inter-process profit is included in the account, it is advisable to have three columns in the ledger to indicate the cost, profit and the total. This facilitates the calculation of the profit to be provided for inclusion in closing stock in each process and in the final finished stock. Therefore inclusion of inter-process profit creates unnecessary complications in the accounts. As the internal profit remains merged in process stock, work in progress, and finished good, suitable adjustment is made in the balance sheet in order to include such unrealized profit. INCLUSION This chapter has examined product pricing decision which may for external products or internal, or intra company uses. It also involves a lot of decision areas since it is a major determinant of the success or otherwise the companies. These is need to paint staking go through it.

CAUSES OF CORRUPTION

CAUSES OF CORRUPTION Corruption is caused generally by greed, lack of positive values, porous system, weak enforcement and oversight mechanisms, excessive materialism, societal pressure, lack of virile welfare structures, insecurity of employment tenure, indiscipline, Inordinate desire for wealth accumulation (get-rich-quick-syndrome), poverty of the mind, nepotism (partiality, favoritism, preferential treatment, bias, discrimination etc), and lack of genuine fear of God. These and many more will be discussed in subsequent editions in detail. EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION Effects of corruption to the nation in general, to the port system in particular and to us as a people is colossal; for example: • It undermines the national image- a corruption ridden country stinks in the comity of nations and meaningful investments cannot be attracted nor developmental cooperation can be established because every Nigerian is viewed as corrupt and dubious outside. For instance, Nigeria has been consistently ranked among the most corrupt country in the world by Transparency International. • It threatens the very survival of a nation as it prevents the provision of basic social amenities for the citizenry. The money meant for development is often pocketed by a few thereby making good governance impossible. It has affected our health sectors not to talk of our educational institutions. As at today, not even one of the Universities in Nigeria is rated among the first 200 in the world and none is rated among the best in Africa. Corruption generally erodes standards to abysmal levels. Quality of goods and services cannot be guaranteed in a corrupt society. • Corruption aggravate unemployment and under development. • It engenders mass poverty and thwart efforts to overcome it. • Most infrastructural decay and unsatisfactory provision of amenities can be traced directly or indirectly to corruption. There is a total collapse of power and road net work in the country today due to corrupt attitude of past leaders. • It erodes the ethical base of society: -as due diligence, excellence, honesty, merit and integrity are discouraged. • It breeds all kinds of crimes and vandalism – arm robbery, kidnapping, youth agitation etc. • It lead to massive brain drain – a great number of Nigeria best brains have been driven to other part of the world where they now spearhead developmental and scientific exploits.

Theoretical Framework, empirical review, sample size of sales Promotion

Theoretical Framework of sales Promotion Sales promotion tools and objectives were analyzed. In general, sales promotion is used to encourage immediate action among consumers. Value adding and value increasing promotions are targeted with unique objectives to potential users, competitor loyals, brand switchers and loyal customers. (Peattie & Peattie 1993) Also the possible problems of value increasing sales promotion in the context of financial services were identified and additional use of value adding promotion is suggested. Intense competition in the credit card markets has made price reductions almost imperative but surviving the competition requires more. One promotional method to be used to stand out from competition could be the increased use of value adding promotion. In the promotion of the company´s credit card, value adding deals such as the increased bonuses and sweepstakes are used in addition to the value increasing price reductions. Sales promotion debate was also discussed in the previous Chapter. The boosting effect of sales promotion to short-term sales is widely accepted in the literature. Research on long-term effects has however, offered some inconsistent results. According to Ailawadi (2001) sales promotion has a positive long-term effect on sales. Also Cotton & Babb (1978; in Peattie & Peattie 1993) state that consumers who are satisfied with the promoted brand will more likely repurchase. In contrary, many researches have revealed results indicating that sales promotion does not affect on long-term sales or even that promotion might decrease long-term sales. (Frank & Massey 1971, Monroe 1973, Bawa & Shoemaker 1977, Dodson et al. 1978, Winer 1986, Neslin & Shoemaker1989, Kalwani et al. 1990; in Peattie & Peattie 1993) The theoretical framework of the study is constructed on the basis of the content of the work. Promotion is just like the spark plug in the marketing mix. It is the process of marketing communication involving information, persuasion, and influence. Promotion has been defined as “co-ordinate self-initiated efforts to establish channels of information and persuasion to facilitate or foster the sale of goods or points of view.” Thus, promotion is persuasive (Communication to inform potential customers of the existence of products, to persuade them that those products have want satisfying capabilities).The marketing mix (or promotion mix) consist of five major modes of communication vix. Advertising, sales promotion, Public relations and personal selling. Allelements of promotion mix have a defined ~ole in all stages of the selling process. Theobjective of promotional strategies is to influence the customer in such a way that he can purchase the product of his own will and then patronizes the same brand in future too. Thusthere are two important activities.1.To give information about the product.2.To influence (increase) the demand of the product.Within the five forms of promotion, each as distinct features that determine in whatsituation it will be most effective. EMPIRICAL REVIEW A sales promotion is a marketing event focusing in which a corporate entity attempts to influence customers directly (Blattberg & Neslin, 1990). A sales promotion stimulates customer purchases and the efficiency of distributors through marketing activities excluding advertising, public relations and so on. In other words, a sales promotion provides the incentive for consumers to purchase some specific products, and this incentive is different from the incentive provided by advertising with respect to the reasons to purchase those specific products. The purpose of a sales promotion is to attract new customers, maintain existing customers who are contemplating switching brands and give incentives to customers who are about to use competing products. Sales promotions vary depending on the situation and need, and they have an immediate effect on product purchases. Airport duty-free shops aim to sell products during a short period of time and help potential duty-free consumers make decisions easily as they consider numerous alternatives before purchasing products. A sales promotion can be categorized as either a price-discounting sales promotion or a value adding sales promotion, depending on the nature of its incentive (Sawyer & Dickson, 1984). A price-discounting sales promotion, presented as a unit price, discounts the price temporarily; methods of doing this include the use of coupons, price discounts and cash refunds. A value adding sales promotion, which is highly likely to be structured as a separate benefit because its differentiating unit is not price, includes the use of premium gifts and free gifts through a bonus pack draw. On the basis of the theory provided by (Sawyer & Dickson, 1984), this study has categorized sales promotions into four different categories: price discounts, coupons, freebies and points. A price discount is the deduction of a certain amount of money from the tag prices during a certain period of time at an airport duty-free shop. A coupon refers to a certificate that provides a price discount or special benefit to only the holder of that coupon. A freebie refers to a free gift for purchasers, and a points system converts a certain amount of money into millage that can later be used as cash. Customer reaction typically varies depending on the type of sales promotion being used; a special sale item might increase an existing consumer’s inclination to make a purchase, while other types of sales promotions might be more effective in attracting new consumers (Cotton & Babb, 1978). Thus, this study investigates the effects that airport duty-free sales promotions have on customer satisfaction and which of the four types of sales promotions has the greatest effect on customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction is the overall satisfaction that an airport duty-free user has after experiencing a sales promotion, and customer value is the valuation of the time, effort and amount of money invested in the sales promotion by the airport. Corporate image can be defined as the overall image of the airport in the minds of airport users. Customer satisfaction and customer value interact with one another, and these two variables are the factors that are crucial in affecting the behavioral intention of customers (Gross, 1997). Furthermore, customer satisfaction is the antecedent of corporate image. Therefore, customer satisfaction improves corporate image, which will, in turn, generate repurchases and the word-of-mouth effect, and it will also generate customer loyalty for the corresponding company. Airport duty-free users build the image of the airport in their minds, and those images will eventually have a direct effect on their behavioral intention. Therefore, it is very crucial to analyze the role and the effect of images. Behavioral intention suggests that the key elements used to predict the directivity and future behavior of consumers are the results of all the variables used in this study. Behavioral intention is considered to be the outcome of the overall satisfaction that includes the intention to return and the intention to recommend (Bendall-Lyon & Powers, 2004). Behavioral intention can be defined as individual will and faith that airport duty-free users want to express through future behavior after having formed an attitude toward the sales promotion they experienced in the airport duty-free shop. In other words, it is the amount of the satisfaction of the airport duty-free users transmitted to others and the strength of the intention to purchase duty-free items. Validity of the instrument All the instruments used by the researcher in collecting data relevant for this work, both the primary and secondary instrument were adequate enough to cover the required areas of the work. Hence, by using all the above mentioned instrument, the researcher was able to gather the needed information for this study which in other words help to update this study for both professional and unprofessional use in academic work and field work. However, the use of questionnaires by the researcher in collecting data relevant for this work proves abortive due to the fact that most of the employees were unable to comply effectively because of some personal reservations which they think it is unworthy to disclose factually. Consequently, with the sole exception of questionnaires, all other instruments were valid for this research work. Reliability of the instruments The instruments used in collecting data both primary and secondary proved worthy of being relied upon by the research because they were able to bring to light an undisputed accuracy of the result obtained in their use. In the same vein, based on the above, all the information acquired from the use of these instruments are reliable, except for questionnaires in which most of the employees refused to comply transparently and some of its results/information was discarded by the researcher. SAMPLE SIZE Sales promotion as an agent of motivation helps in improving the efficiency of workers in the organization, is a specialized area and demand only those knowledgeable in the field to fill the questionnaire. As a result, only 80 person out of 100 person were considered representative enough to enable a reliable generalised state to be realised. The above sample size was obtained using Yaro Yamen formula. n = N 1 + N (e)2 Where n = Sample size N = Population e = Error of estimate = 5% I = Constant Where N = 100 e = 0.05 n = 100 1 + 100 (0.05)2 n = 100 1 + 0.25 100 1.25 = 80 ans

VARIANCE (SV) & COST VARIANCE (CV) IN CONTRACT COST MANAGEMENT

VARIANCE (SV) & COST VARIANCE (CV) IN CONTRACT COST MANAGEMENT Schedule Variance and Cost Variance are two important parameters in earned value management which help you analyze the project’s progress, i.e. how are you performing in terms of schedule and cost. In my previous blog posts I have discussed earned value management and its three basic elements. If you haven’t read these blog posts, I suggest you read them first and then come back to this post. Here we are going to discuss Schedule Variance and Cost Variance, which are determined with the help of earned value, planned value and actual cost. Let’s start with an example. Suppose you are managing a construction project, and the client comes and asks you to update him about the current status and progress of the project. What does the client mean by asking for the status and progress of the project, and how will you get this information? The client is asking about the cost incurred to date, work completed, and how are you performing in terms of cost and schedule. Put more simply, the client is asking you to provide him with the project’s earned value, planned value, actual cost, Schedule Variance, and Cost Variance. Earned value is the value of the work actually completed to date, planned value is the money that you should have spent as per the schedule, and actual cost is the amount spent on the project to date Schedule Variance tells you whether you are behind or ahead of schedule, and Cost Variance tells you whether you are under budget or over budget. These variances give you important information about the project’s progress, and it is your job to monitor these variances regularly. Variance analysis is a key to the success of your project. A successful project must finish on time and within the approved budget. With the help of these variances, you can easily monitor your project performance and take corrective action whenever required. Variance analysis tells you if you are going in the correct direction or not. Schedule Variance (SV) It is very important for you to keep your project on schedule. Not only does it help you complete your project on time, but it also helps you avoid unnecessary cost overrun due to slippage of schedule. Because as you go over the stipulated time, your costs start rising exponentially. For example, let’s say that you have rented some equipment for a certain duration of time. However, if you need this equipment for extra time, you may end up paying more because the equipment may not be available at the previously negotiated price, or you may need to rent this equipment from other suppliers on an urgent basis at a higher price. So, you can see that Schedule Variance is a very important analytical tool for you. This tool gives you information about how far behind or ahead of schedule you are in terms of dollars. Schedule Variance is a measure of the schedule performance of a project. Formula for Schedule Variance (SV) Schedule Variance can be calculated by subtracting planned value from earned value. Schedule Variance = Earned Value – Planned Value SV = EV – PV From the above formula, we can conclude that: • If Schedule Variance is positive, this means you are ahead of schedule. • If Schedule Variance is negative, this means you are behind schedule. • If Schedule Variance is zero, this means you are on schedule. • When the project is completed Schedule Variance becomes zero, because at the end of the project all Planned Value has been earned. Example of Schedule Variance (SV) You have a project to be completed in 12 months and the cost of the project is 100,000 USD. Six months have passed and 60,000 USD has been spent, but on closer review you find that only 40% of the work has been completed so far. Find the project’s Schedule Variance (SV), and deduce whether you are ahead of schedule or behind schedule. Given in the question: Actual Cost (AC) = 60,000 USD Planned Value (PV) = 50% of 100,000 = 50,000 USD Earned Value (EV) = 40% of 100,000 = 40,000 USD Now, Schedule Variance = Earned Value – Planned Value = 40,000 – 50,000 = – 10,000 USD Hence, the project’s Schedule Variance is -10,000 USD, and since it is negative, you are behind schedule. Cost Variance (CV) Cost Variance is equally as important as Schedule Variance. You must complete your project within the approved budget. It is bad for you and your client if the project cost exceeds its boundary. It is all about the money and the clients are very cautious about what they are spending. Organizations are also very sensitive towards it because any deviation from the cost baseline can affect their profit, and in the worst case they may have to put more money into the project to complete it. This is especially detrimental if the contract is fixed price. Cost Variance deals with the cost baseline of the project. It gives you information about whether you’re over budget or under budget in terms of dollars. Cost Variance is a measure of cost performance of a project. Formula for Cost Variance (CV) Cost Variance can be calculated by subtracting actual cost from earned value. Cost Variance = Earned Value – Actual Cost CV = EV – AC From the above formula, we can conclude that, • If Cost Variance is positive, this means you are under budget. • If Cost Variance is negative, this means you are over budget. • If Cost Variance is zero, this means you are on budget. Example of Cost Variance (CV) You have a project to be completed in 12 months and the cost of the project is 100,000 USD. Six months have passed and 60,000 USD has been spent, but on closer review you find that only 40% of the work has been completed so far. Find the project’s Cost Variance (CV), and deduce whether you are under budget or over budget. Given in the question: Actual Cost (AC) = 60,000 USD Earned Value (EV) = 40% of $100,000 = 40,000 USD Now, Cost Variance = Earned Value – Actual Cost CV = EV – AC = 40,000 – 60,000 = –20,000 USD Hence, the project’s Cost Variance is -20,000 USD, and since it is negative, you are over budget. Summary Schedule Variance and Cost Variance are great tools to analyze project health. If both variances are positive, this means that you are going in the correct direction. However, if either variance is negative, this means that something is wrong and you have to take corrective action to bring the project back on track. This was all about Schedule Variance and Cost Variance. If you have something to add, you can do so through the comments section. You can now move on to my next blog post on Schedule Performance Index and Cost Performance Index. If you are interested in learning all the mathematical formulas for the PMP exam, you can try my PMP Formula Guide. You can also try my PMP Question Bank to practice 400 PMP exam sample questions.

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EFFECT OF PERSONAL SELLING ON ACHIEVING SALES VOLUME OF AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT

EFFECT OF PERSONAL SELLING ON ACHIEVING SALES VOLUME OF AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT Personal selling consist of individual, personal communication i.e. face to face communication of information from the seller to prospective buyer. Personal selling is person-to-person communication in which the receiver provides immediate feedback to the source message through words gestures, expressions e.t.c such instant feedback allows the source to make instantaneous changes in encoding to adopt message to the receiver i.e if a sales person detects that a prospective buyer dislikes the features or the price of a products he or she can stress the advantages and benefits of the product’s feature to justify the price or even show the customers some other products which may be substituted, supplementary or complementary. Unlike advertising, personal selling focuses on communication and encouraging exchange and it also provide the human touch that is lacking in advertising. Personal selling enable marketers to tailor their presentation to fit the needs, wants, motives and behaviour of individuals customers to a particular sales approach, personal selling often results to particular purchase. The need for personal selling increases with the complexity of products and services for these reasons, manufacturer like to promote their goods and services through personal selling. Personal selling is seen as an effective tool used by organizations to receive the desired response from its customers and prospects. Effective personal selling will include effective communication. Educating customers, problem solving, stimulating and or motivating and ultimately soliciting of favourable response. Personal selling has become necessary in today’s organizational operations due to the nature of the economy, which is becoming highly competitive. The effective implementation of personal selling may go a long way to assist organizations in achieving their overall sales objectives and goals. 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE SUBJECT MATTER Personal selling is simply to make a sale on individual’s basis. Sales person serves as the link between the selling and buying system. Today, sales persons are required to have more education and technical training than their predecessors. Sales people have many resources at their at their disposal and are better equipped to develop long term relationship with buyers. They are backed by a team of specialists, including market researchers, financial experts and engineers. Salesman of today they are very good diagnosticians of customers needs and they are also problems consultants who make well considered recommendations. They (sale people) are at home to all facets of a prospective customers business that will in any way relate to the goods and services to be sold.