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FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERR,

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oly HND Entrance Exam Result. Go to Nekede Poly HND entrance exam result checking portal by clicking here,WWW.FPNO.EDU.ORG Supply the Payee ID and Confirmation Code where required, Finally, click ‘Continue’ to access your score

SAMPLE SIZE Motivation as a Improving the efficiency workers in public sector is a specialized area and demand only those knowledgeable in the field to fill the questionnaire. As a result, only 80 person out of 100 person were considered representative enough to enable a reliable generalised state to be realised. The above sample size was obtained using Yaro Yamen formula. n = N 1 + N (e)2 Where n = Sample size N = Population e = Error of estimate = 5% I = Constant Where N = 100 e = 0.05 n = 100 1 + 100 (0.05)2 n = 100 1 + 0.25 100 1.25 = 80 ans 3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The researcher having identified these questions that tested the particular research question of the study, now converted the figure get as responses for a specific research question into percentages for a specific group of questions of one particular research questions. In other words, each question was assigned to table in which illustrations regarding it were made. Furthermore, the responses were grouped into main categories showing the extent of acceptability by the respondents such as: Agreed, Strongly Agree, Disagree and Strongly disagree. CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA In this data that were considered relevant to the objective of this study were selected and analyzed. The data collected from the questionnaires will be interpreted using the chi-square because it give accurate solution ion the problem identified in the questionnaire. This will reveal whether or not the problem of improving the efficiency workers in public sector. It also focused on the analysis of general characteristic of respondents and empirical test of two hypothesis using the chi-square technique and concluded by stating the decision rule. 4.1 ANALYSIS OF GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF RESPONDENTS Table 1: Distribution and return of questionnaire Questionnaire Number Percentage % Total unreturned Total returned Total distributed 30 50 80 37.5% 62.5% 100% From table one, the researcher distributed 80 questionnaires to the staff, of which 50 answered questions were returned and 30 were not returned. Research Question No 1 Table 2: Option No of respondents Percentage % Yes No 42 8 84% 16% Total 50 100% Research Question 2 Table 3: Option No of respondents Percentage % Deflation Theft Forgeries Non of the above 11 5 34 0 22% 10% 60% 0 Total 50 100% Research Question 3 Table 4 Option No of respondents Percentage % Greed Poor condition of services Societal values 40 6 4 80% 12% 85 Total 50 100% Research Question 5 Table 5: Option No of respondents Percentage % Yes No 20 30 40% 60% Total 50 100% Research Question 6 Table 6: Option No of respondents Percentage % Effective partially Effective Ineffective 38 12 Nil 76% 24% Nil Total 50 100% Research Question 7 Table 7 Option No of respondents Percentage % Yes No 45 5 90% 10% Total 50 100% Research Question 8 Table 8 Option No of respondents Percentage % Less than 30 min More than 30 min About 1 39 11 50 78% 22% 100% Research Question 11 Table 9: Can fraud be prevented in banking industry Option No of respondents Percentage % Yes No 39 11 78% 22% Total 50 100% Research Question 15 Table 10: Option No of respondents Percentage % Fear Involvement Indifference 26 18 6 52% 36% 12% Total 50 100% Research Question 16 Table 11: Option No of respondents Percentage % Utmost Seriousness Middy Indifference 50 Nil Nil 50 100% Nil Nil 100%

Real Estate - Imo

Real Estate - Imo Login oRegister OLX Logo Sell your item Home Real Estate 94 results for "Real Estate" in Imo Page 1 of 4 Category All categories Real Estate 94 Land 52 Houses - Apartments for Rent 23 Houses - Apartments for Sale 16 Office and Shops 3 Price Seller Type Individuals 78 Professionals / Businesses 16 Nigeria Imo Owerri West 45 Owerri-Municipal 41 Owerri North 5 Aboh-Mbaise 1 Oguta 1 Okigwe 1 Gallery List Sort by: 8,000 square metres of land for sale 8,000 square metres of land for sale Land - Owerri-Municipal ₦180000000 Negotiable Yesterday, 18:05 3 BR Flat in a Safe Neigborhood at Ikenegbu, Owerri for ₦25,000/month 3 BR Flat in a Safe Neigborhood at Ikenegbu, Owerri for ₦25,000/month Houses - Apartments for Rent - Owerri-Municipal ₦25000 15 Aug One plot of land for sale in avu owerri west Land - Owerri North ₦1500000 15 Aug 1 plot of land for sale Land - Owerri-Municipal ₦1500000 15 Aug A plot of land for sale Land - Owerri West ₦1500 15 Aug Bottlesachet water, Tissue and waterproof, and printing Factory Bottlesachet water, Tissue and waterproof, and printing Factory Office and Shops - Aboh-Mbaise ₦150000000 Negotiable 14 Aug one and half plot of Land for sale in Owerri @ a give away price. one and half plot of Land for sale in Owerri @ a give away price. Land - Owerri-Municipal 30000000 Negotiable 14 Aug One plot of land for sale. Land - Owerri West ₦1300000 14 Aug Block Of 8 Flats For Sale In Owerri Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri-Municipal ₦65000000 Negotiable 14 Aug A plot of land with bungalow 4sale in owerri Land - Owerri-Municipal ₦4500000 13 Aug 5 Plots Of Land For Seal At Affordable @450000 Each 5 Plots Of Land For Seal At Affordable @450000 Each Land - Owerri-Municipal Negotiable 13 Aug HOSTELS FOR SALE AT NEKEDE Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri-Municipal ₦35000000 Negotiable 10 Aug HOTEL FOR SALE HOTEL FOR SALE Houses - Apartments for Rent - Owerri-Municipal ₦70000000 Negotiable 8 Aug HOTEL FOR SALE Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri-Municipal ₦70000000 Negotiable 8 Aug AMMIX PROPERTY CONSULTANTS. AMMIX PROPERTY CONSULTANTS. Land - Owerri-Municipal ₦2000000 Negotiable 8 Aug Two storey building with 18rooms self contained for hostel close to federal poly nekede Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri West ₦13000000 Negotiable 7 Aug Double duplex at nekede in a nice site Double duplex at nekede in a nice site Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri West ₦20000000 Negotiable 7 Aug One storey building with two 2 empty plots at the back close to federal poly nekede Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri West ₦25000000 7 Aug 2 plots of land at at NAZA owerri it is very nice for residential,hotel etc 2 plots of land at at NAZA owerri it is very nice for residential,hotel etc Land - Owerri West ₦3500000 7 Aug I plot of land with fenced and a two storey foundation close to fed poly nekede I plot of land with fenced and a two storey foundation close to fed poly nekede Land - Owerri West ₦6000000 7 Aug 4plots of land after Nnpc filling station Iheagwa very good for hotel,church,hostel etc. 4plots of land after Nnpc filling station Iheagwa very good for hotel,church,hostel etc. Land - Owerri West ₦700000 7 Aug 1 plots of land close to fed poly nekede for hostel nice site 1 plots of land close to fed poly nekede for hostel nice site Land - Owerri West ₦1700000 7 Aug 3 plots of land very good for hostel and residential close to federal poly nekede 3 plots of land very good for hostel and residential close to federal poly nekede Land - Owerri West ₦1300000 7 Aug 1 plot of land close to fed poly school gate for hostel 1 plot of land close to fed poly school gate for hostel Land - Owerri West ₦1300000 7 Aug 4 plots of land close to fed poly nekede for hostel 4 plots of land close to fed poly nekede for hostel Land - Owerri West ₦4000000 7 Aug Hostel at nekede self contained close to federal poly nekede Hostel at nekede self contained close to federal poly nekede Houses - Apartments for Sale - Owerri West ₦18000000 6 Aug 4plots of Land 4plots of Land Land - Owerri-Municipal ₦36000000 Negotiable 3 Aug Next Page 1 2 3 4 Location: Nigeria Imo Free classifieds in Nigeria Real Estate in Nigeria Real Estate in Imo Useful Information Contact & Help Terms and Conditions About OLX OLX Services Post your ad for free Register OLX Close to you Nigeria Popular on OLX Download the OLX IOS App Download the OLX Android App Free classifieds in Nigeria - Copyright © 2006-2015 OLX, Inc.

Environmental Factors affecting insurance

Environmental Factors affecting insurance 1. NEGATIVE OR BAD RECORD: Experience has revealed that many insurance companies has failed in their duties of settling their policyholders by giving excuses on the reasons why they should not settle them. Because of this, many would be customers or prospective customers still entertain fears as to the insurance firms abilities to settle their claims when it eventually surface. 2. PREVIOUS RECORD: Past record has shown that individuals do depend on their relatives, friends and well wishers in the area of monetary assistance as to the provision of remedies to their private or business problems which makes it difficult for individuals who desires to attract financial assistance from insurance companies to be discouraged. 3. PEOPLE’S PERCEPTION: Many people perceive insurance companies as a sort of gambling and in that regard tries to avoid it as a result of their traditions and cultures which tends to make individuals to loose their interest

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI P.M .B 1036, OWERRI IMO STATE ASSIGNMENT ON DICUSS FISCAL FEDERALISM WRITTEN BY GROUP 13 NAMES: REG. NO: AMADI AUGUSTA I. 14/0080/PS AMADI PRISCA CHINAZAEPERE ANYAWU CASMIR C. 14/0001/PS EDUPUTA CHIDERA V. IKERIONWU CHIDERA AUGUSTINE NWACHUKWU MARTIN U. 14/0042/PS NWANYA ONYEDIKACHI FORTUNE 14/0075/PS OKIKE PROMISE CHIMAOBI 14/0027/PS ONWULA INNOCENT O. ONYEWUCHI CHETACHI B. 14/0013/PS THEOPHILOS JOSTINA NWAMAKA DEPT: GNS 131 LECTURER: HIS EXCELLENCY DATE: AUGUST, 2015. PURCHASING AND SUPPLY LEVEL: NDI MORNING COURSE TITLE: CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION COURSE CODE: ABSTRACT Fiscal federalism, which mirrors the amount of fiscal autonomy and responsibility accorded to sub-national government, has been an important subject in the policy equation of many developing, transition, and developed countries. This paper, therefore, examined the evolution, structure, and practices of fiscal federalism in Nigeria. The paper revealed that Nigeria has not operated as a true federation since it adopted a federal constitution. Fiscal responsibility and taxing powers still remain considerably centralized. The practice of fiscal federalism in Nigeria has been inhibited by several factors which include, the dominance of the federal government in the revenue sharing, the protracted period of interregnum rule of the military, and over-reliance on the revenue from the Federation Account. Keywords: Decentralisation, Allocation, Centralism, Military INTRODUCTION Fiscal federalism is concerned with "understanding which functions and instruments are best centralized and which are best placed in the sphere of decentralized levels of government" (Oates, 1999). In other words, it is the study of how competencies (expenditure side) and fiscal instruments (revenue side) are allocated across different (vertical) layers of the administration. An important part of its subject matter is the system of transfer payments or grants by which a central government shares its revenues with lower levels of government. Federal governments use this power to enforce national rules and standards. There are two primary types of transfers, conditional and unconditional. A conditional transfer from a federal body to a province, or other territory, involves a certain set of conditions. If the lower level of government is to receive this type of transfer, it must agree to the spending instructions of the federal government. An example of this would be the Canada Health Transfer. An unconditional grant is usually a cash or tax point transfer, with no spending instructions. An example of this would be a federal equalization transfer. This may be noted that the concept of fiscal federalism is relevant for all kinds of government: unitary, federal and con-federal. The concept of fiscal federalism is not to be associated with fiscal decentralization in officially declared federations only; it is applicable even to non-federal states (having no formal federal constitutional arrangement) in the sense that they encompass different levels of government which have de facto decision making authority. This, however, does not mean that all forms of governments are 'fiscally' federal, only that 'fiscal federalism' is a set of principles that can be applied to all countries attempting 'fiscal decentralization'. In fact, fiscal federalism is a general normative framework for assignment of functions to the different levels of government and appropriate fiscal instruments for carrying out these functions These questions arise: (a) how are federal and non-federal countries different with respect to 'fiscal federalism' or 'fiscal decentralization', and (b) how are fiscal federalism and fiscal decentralization related (similar or different)? Chanchal Kumar Sharma clarifies that while "fiscal federalism constitutes a set of guiding principles, a guiding concept" that helps in designing financial relations between the national and subnational levels of the government, "fiscal decentralization on the other hand is a process of applying such principles". Federal and non-federal countries differ in the manner in which such principles are applied. Application differs because unitary and federal governments differ in their political and legislative context and thus provide different opportunities for fiscal decentralization. What is Fiscal Federalism? There are numerous definitions of fiscal federalism or what is sometimes referred to as “intergovernmental fiscal relations” (see Ekpo, 2004). Understanding these meaning(s) and the controversies that the issue of fiscal federalism generates across countries logically presupposes an understanding of the term “federalism.” I won’t waste too much time in defining federalism but to simply view it as a system of government with in-built mechanisms that allows the various component constituent-state governments certain spheres of operation which are not necessarily mutually exclusive but which in the main, assures them of specific powers in terms of the legislation and control or adjudication over this spheres. By this definition, I escape the classicalist K. C. whereas’ distinct position that argues that each component of a federal system operates within their spheres “coordinate” and “independent.” In reality, there is no federal structure with one hundred percent coordinate and independent units. In adopting this position, I also, therefore, agree with the position of Donald Horowitz that though federalism, at least in principle is aimed at managing conflict(s) in pluralised (not plural) societies, “federalism can also foster undemocratic institutions (Horowitz, 2008: 103). Main concepts The concepts of fiscal federalism are related to vertical and horizontal fiscal relations. The notions related to horizontal fiscal relations are related to regional imbalances and horizontal competition. Similarly the notions related to fiscal relations are related to vertical fiscal imbalance between the two senior levels of government, that is the centre and the states/provinces. While the concept of horizontal fiscal imbalance is relatively non controversial (as explained above), the concept of vertical fiscal imbalance is quite controversial (see Bird 2003 and Sharma 2011) A recent article published in Public Administration, Blackwell, Oxford, authored by Chanchal Kumar Sharma, clarifies the notion of vertical fiscal imbalance.The paper also demonstrates how the notion of Vertical Fiscal Imbalance (VFI) is conceptually distinct from the notion of Vertical Fiscal Gap (VFG). These terms are used as synonyms, burt they are not. Recent attempts at differentiating the notions, particularly in the Canadian literature on fiscal federalism, had rather added to the confusion (see Sharma 2011, Tables 1,2,3; section VI). The incisive analysis of the aforementioned paper at once clarifies the entire conceptual confusion. The article states that any existing revenue-expenditure asymmetry between the two levels of a government should simply be called, what it is, that is, a Vertical Fiscal Asymmetry (VFA). The precise nature of this asymmetry, in a particular country, can be determined by using certain criteria that the author has evolved. The kind of policy solution to be applied will depend on the nature of asymmetry (VFA). Thus, there can be three types of VFAs: 1. Fiscal asymmetry with fiscal imbalance: VERTICAL FISCAL IMBALANCE (VFI). This means inappropriate allocation of revenue powers and spending responsibilities. This state can be remedied by reassignment of revenue raising powers. 2. Fiscal asymmetry without fiscal imbalance but with a fiscal gap: VERTICAL FISCAL GAP (VFG). This means a desirable revenue-expenditure asymmetry but with a fiscal gap to be closed. This state can be remedied by re-calibration of federal transfers. 3. Fiscal asymmetry without fiscal imbalance and without fiscal gap: VERTICAL FISCAL DIFFERENCE (VFD). This means a desirable revenue-expenditure asymmetry without a fiscal gap ( i.e. gap is closed). This is a state of fiscal asymmetry where there is "no imbalance and no gap" and thus needs no remedial measure. Conceptual Issues Fiscal federalism is a byproduct of federalism. Federalism is a political concept in which power to govern is shared between national, and sub-national governments creating what is often called a federation (Arowolo 2011, Akindele and Olaopa, 2002). Federalism is a political concept in which the power to govern is shared between national, states and local governments, creating what is often called a federation (Arowolo, 2011, Akindele and Olaopa, 2002). Arowolo (2011, p.4) states that “It is a political theory that is divergent in concept, varied in ecology and dynamic in practice”. According to Vincent (2001), the concept of federalism implies that each tier of government is coordinate and independent in its delimited sphere of authority and should also have appropriate taxing powers to exploit its independent sources of revenue. Fiscal federalism demands that each level of government should have adequate resources to perform its functions without appealing to the other level of government for financial assistance (Wheare, 1963): For any federation to be sustained there must be fiscal decentralization and financial autonomy. Fiscal decentralization means delegating decision-making to lower levels of government instead of concentrating it at the centre. Each level of government, therefore, should be free to take decisions and allocate resources according to its own priorities in its own area of jurisdiction. In addition, the federating units should be able to act independently on matters within their own jurisdiction(Ewetan, 2011). Fiscal federalism is concerned with “understanding which functions and instruments are best centralized and which are best placed in the sphere of decentralized levels of government” (Oates, 1999). Fiscal federalism is a general normative framework for the assignment of functions to the different levels of government and appropriate fiscal instruments for carrying out these functions (Arowolo, 2011). It is a set of guiding principles or concept that helps in designing financial relations between the national and subnational levels of government, while fiscal decentralisation is the process of applying such principles (Sharma, 2005). Fiscal federalism concerns the division of public sector functions and finances among different tiers of government (Ozo-Eson, 2005). Fiscal federalism is characterized by fiscal relations between central and lower levels of government. The fiscal relationships between and among the constituents of the federation is explained in terms of three main theories, namely, the theory of fiscal relation which concerns the functions expected to be performed by each level of government in the fiscal allocation; the theory of inter-jurisdictional cooperation which refers to areas of shared responsibility by the national, state and local governments, and the theory of multijurisdictional community (Tella, 1999). In this case, each jurisdiction (state, region or zone) will provide services whose benefits will accrue to people within its boundaries, and so, should use only such sources of finance as will internalize the costs. Theory of fiscal federalism The basic foundations for the initial theory of Fiscal Federalism were laid by Kenneth Arrow, Richard Musgrave and Paul Sadweh Samuelson. Samuelson’s two important papers (1954, 1955) on the theory of public goods, Arrows discourse (1970) on the roles of the public and private sectors and Musgrave’s book (1959) on public finance provided the framework for what became accepted as the proper role of the state in the economy. The theory was later to be known as “Decentralisation Theorem” (Ozo-Eson, 2005). This framework identifies three roles for the government sector. These are correcting various dimensions of market failure, maintaining macroeconomic stability, and redressing income inequality. The central government is responsible for the correction of market failure and maintenance of macroeconomic stability, while the subnational governments and the central government are jointly responsible for redressing income inequality(Ozon-Eson, 2005). Each tier of government is seen as seeking to maximize the social welfare of the citizens within its jurisdiction. This multi-layered quest becomes very important where public goods exists, the consumption of which is not national in character, but localized. In such circumstances, local outputs targeted at local demands by respective local jurisdictions clearly provide higher social welfare than central provision. This principle, which Oates (1972) has formalized into the “Decentralization Theorem” constitutes the basic foundation for what may be referred to as the first generation theory of fiscal decentralization (Oates, 2006a; Bird, 2009). The theory focuses on situations where different levels of government provide efficient levels of outputs of public goods “for those goods whose special patterns of benefits are encompassed by the geographical scope of their jurisdictions” (Oates, 2006b). Fiscal Federalism Network The relationship between central and subcentral government bodies has a profound effect on efficiency and equity within the government and on macroeconomic stability of the country. The role of the OECD Network on Fiscal Relations Across Levels of Government is to provide data and analysis on these relationships between organizations at different levels of government. Fiscal Federalism And Development In Nigeria According to Professor Akpan Ekpo, a one-time Vice Chancellor of University of Uyo, during his 2004 presentation entitled “Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations: The Nigerian Experience” at the 10th Year Anniversary of the Financial and Fiscal Commission of South Africa in Cape Town, “Nigeria’s fiscal federalism has emanated from historical, economic, political, geographical, cultural and social factors. In all of these, fiscal arrangements remain a controversial issue since 1946. Therefore, there exist unresolved issues on this matter”. Flowing from the above statement, I would start by stressing one fundamental point: there is no such thing as a ‘true federalism’ in the real sense of the word. Consequently, there is no totally identical federal system, and each system, even where such idea had been borrowed from elsewhere, often reflects the peculiar socio-economic and historical moments that led to its introduction. Hence, scholars have always talked about a “spectrum” of federalism which ranges from a centralized federal system to the most decentralized the commonest feature amongst them being at least two tiers of government, namely, the federal government and constituent states. Having said this, my presentation will engage two seemingly simple but difficult questions. (1) How can fiscal federalism impact development? That is, in what ways does fiscal federalism have a negative or positive effect on development? (2) What are the core issues in Nigeria’s fiscal federalism and how does this impact development? In other words, what are the fundamental issues in Nigeria’s fiscal federalism? Nature and challenges of fiscal federalism in Nigerian The legal basis of fiscal federalism is derived from the past constitutional arrangements and, hence, in any true federalism the fiscal powers of all tiers of government must be related to the functions and responsibilities assigned to them by the Constitution. Constitutionally, Nigeria is a federation, but in practice, and with the assumption of power by successive military administrations, the constitution has always been suspended and the country ruled more or less like a unitary state. The imposition of a centralized unitary system on a federal structure under the military administration partly explains our experience of poor fiscal management and low economic performance which, over the years, had adversely inhibited the true practice of fiscal federalism. Summary The paper analyzed the evolution of fiscal federalism, evolved a theoretical basis for fiscal federalism and discussed extensively on the nature and challenges of fiscal relations in Nigeria. The paper concluded that fiscal responsibility and taxing powers still remain considerably centralized. Fiscal federalism has therefore been viewed as a subfield of public economics concerned with understanding what functions and instruments are “best centralized” and which are “best placed in the sphere of decentralized levels of government” (Kalu, 2011: 1). In this piece, I define fiscal federalism as the system of revenue generation, allocation and redistribution within a federal system. It is that aspect of federalism that concerns the financial and attendant functions and responsibilities of component units within a federal structure. Expectedly, however, because federalism is generally viewed as a system represented by ‘unity in diversity,’ fiscal federalism is itself guided by some principles. For instance, Ekpo (2004) identifies ten of these principles. Here I will emphasis four of the most popular ones. These include: principle of accommodation, principle of correction of spill-over effects, principle of social safety net, and principle of derivation. First is the principle of accommodation which relates to the ability or requirement of a federal fiscal system to accommodate diversity (i.e. varieties and differences) in its supply of national, regional and local public goods. Second is the principle that speaks to the correction of spill-over effects which means that a fiscal federalism instrument must be able to address “externalities” (i.e. negative and positive effects of distribution on different geo-political zones). Simply put, for instance, if fiscal distribution of public goods leads to the development of State A, mechanism(s) must be put in place to ensure that State B, that does not benefit from such interventions, is supported in a manner that the negative effect of State A’s positive development does not continue to engender a negative development in State B. Recommendation The solution is to redress the prevailing mismatch by raising the level of taxing assignment of sub-national governments. • The need for an efficient formula between the centre and other tiers of government is recommended. This formula should also satisfy the broad objectives of inter-regional equity and balanced national development. To this end the present vertical revenue allocation formula should be reviewed by the federal government to increase the percentage to lower governments in Nigeria to strengthen their fiscal capacity and enable them play strong role in nation building. • Also, it is imperative to embark on radical diversification of the Nigerian economy to other viable and productive sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, mining, industry and human development. • Urgent reform in fiscal federalism in Nigeria to address the constitutional issue of fiscal powers among the three tiers of government to redress the prevailing fiscal mismatch at sub-national levels of government is strongly recommended. • The need to diversify and strengthen the fiscal base of sub-national governments is recommended. To this end, local tax administration should be improved, unproductive local taxes eliminated, and untapped tax potentials identified. • The need to promote fiscal discipline at all levels of government to sustain macroeconomic stability is strongly recommended. The policy should compulsorily place effective limits on governments’ deficits at all levels, consistent with the objective of macroeconomic stability to ensure sustainable national development. Conclusion In conclusion, the problems associated with the fiscal arrangements of the Nigerian federation are fundamentally attributable to the nature, content and character of the country’s fiscal regime as well as the institutional and socio-political factors that shaped the country’s economic policy including limited revenue base as discussed above. However, no single paper can fully address the challenges of Nigeria’s fiscal federalism but I would make some suggestions on how to enhance the performance index of both the federal and state governments despite their limited revenue base. First, government must be proactive in the development projects. This means that not only must federating states and the federal government understand the need for development but they must also show that they know how to bring it to the grass-root in order to achieve maximum results. Second, anti-corruption institutions and the fight against corruption must be enhanced. It is unbelievable the amount of funds that is lost to corruption. It is pathetic that some have noted and lamented that state governments receive less funds than is required, yet, some are silent on the disturbing cases of corruption in these states even with the supposedly meager resources at their disposal! Third, the people must continue to hold their representatives accountable. It is only through this that governments can live up to their expenditure responsibilities by providing public goods and services for the benefits of all Nigerians. REFERENCES Aristovnik, Aleksander. 2012 'Fiscal decentralization in Eastern Europe : trends and selected issues', Transylvanian review of administrative sciences Aigbokhan, B.E. (1999), “Fiscal federalism and economic growth in Nigeria”, in Fiscal Federalism and Nigeria’s Economic Development 1999 proceedings of the annual conference of the Nigerian Economic Society, Nigerian Economic Society, Ibadan, pp. 333-352. Ajayi, K. (1999), “Federalism and unitarism”, in Kolawole, D. (Ed), Readings in Political Science, Dekaal Publishers, Ibadan, pp. 149-165. Akindele, S.T. and Olaopa, K.(2002),“Fiscal federalism and local government finance in Nigeria: an examination of revenue, rights and fiscal jurisdiction”, in Omotoso, F. (Ed.), Contemporary issues in public administration, Bolabay Publications, Lagos, pp. 46-64. Akpan, E.O. (2011), “Fiscal Decentralization and Social Outcomes in Nigeria”, European Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 167-183. Arowolo, D. (2011),“Fiscal federalism in Nigeria: Theory and dimensions”, Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 2.2, pp. 1 22. Bird, R.M. (2009), “Taxation in Latin America: Reflections on sustainability and the balance between efficiency and equity”, working paper [0306], Rotam School of Management, University of Toronto, 26 June. Bird, R.M. 2003. ‘Fiscal Flows, Fiscal Balance, and Fiscal Sustainability’, Working Paper 03-02, Atlanta: Georgia State University. Ferrara, A. (2010) Cost-Benefit Analysis of Multi-Level Government: The Case of EU Cohesion Policy and US Federal Investment Policies, London and New York: Routledge. Sharma, C. K. (2011), BEYOND GAPS AND IMBALANCES: RE-STRUCTURING THE DEBATE ON INTERGOVERNMENTAL FISCAL RELATIONS. Public Administration. Vol. 89 doi:10.1111/j.1467-9299.2011.01947.x Sharma, C. K. (2011), BEYOND GAPS AND IMBALANCES: RE-STRUCTURING THE DEBATE ON INTERGOVERNMENTAL FISCAL RELATIONS. Public Administration. Vol. 89 doi:10.1111/j.1467-9299.2011.01947.

INSECTICIDES AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Organized by chinedu j. INSECTICIDES AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT WRITTEN BY OGWUEGBU CHIOMA 12/0272/ST NWANERI IJEOMA H. 12/0273/ST A SEMINAR RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE, FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI SUPERVISED BY DR. ALI BILAR ALEX IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY. JANUARY 2015 CERTIFICATION This seminar has been read and approved for the department of Science Laboratory Technology, School of Industrial and Applied Science, Federal Polytechnic Nekede Owerri, Imo State. BY …………………………………… ……………………………. DR. ALI BILAR ALEX DATE (Supervisor) …………………………………… ……………………………. DR. ALI BILAR ALEX DATE (H.O.D.)   DEDICATION This seminar work is dedicated to God Almighty for His guidance and protection throughout these years of our academic predicament. This seminar work is also dedicated to the entire student of Science Technology Department (Chemistry).   ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge our competent and humble supervisor Dr. Ali Bilar Alex for assisting us from all angles towards the successfulness of our seminar work. We also feel indebted to all our lecturers in Science Laboratory Technology and our able Head of Department Dr. Alex A.B. for their immense support both morally and academic towards our academic pursuit. We also appreciate the efforts of our friends, colleagues and the entire students of Science Laboratory Technology who contributed in one way or the other for this achievement. May Almighty God continue to guide them towards their future endeavour. We finally, express our extraordinary appreciations to our beloved parents/guardians Mr. & Mrs. Onyeanuna Ogwuegbu and Mr. & Mrs. Innocent Nwaneri for their numerous supports, financially and otherwise which constituted our major source of sustenance up to this level of academic achievement. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page - - - - - - - - i Dedication - - - - - - - - ii Acknowledgement - - - - - - - iii Table of Contents - - - - - - - iv CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 1 1.1 Classification of Insecticides - - - - 3 1.2 Statement of problems - - - - - - 9 1.3 Aim - - - - - - - - - 11 1.4 Objectives - - - - - - - 11 CHAPTER TWO 2.0 Literature Review - - - - - - -13 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Environmental effects of insecticides 3.1 Effects on non target species - - - - 22 3.1.1 Air - - - - - - - - - 22 3.1.2 Soil - - - - - - - - - 24 3.1.3 Water - - - - - - - - 22 3.1.4 Effect on plants - - - - - - 26 3.1.5 Effect on animals - - - - - - 27 3.1.6 Aquatic life - - - - - - - 28 3.1.7 Humans - - - - - - - - 29 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 Conclusion and Recommendations 4.1 Conclusion - - - - - - - 32 4.2 Recommendations - - - - - - 33 References - - - - - - - 34   CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects by killing them or preventing them from engaging in behaviours deemed undesirable or destructive. Insecticide is also seen as any toxic substance that is used to kill insects. They include ovicides and Larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae respectively. Such substances are used primarily to control pests that infest cultivated plants or to eliminate disease – carrying insects in specific areas. Insecticides are commonly used in agriculture, public health and industrial applications, as well as household and commercial uses (e.g. control of roaches and termites). Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase of agricultural 20th century’s productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; some concentrate along the food chain. Insecticides can be classified in different ways: on the basis of their chemistry, their toxicological action or their mode of penetration (action). Many insecticides act upon the nervous system of the insect (e.g. cholinesterase (ChE) inhibition) while others act as growth regulators or endotoxins. Insecticides are applied in various formulations and delivery systems (e.g. sprays, baits, slow-release diffusion) that influence their transport and chemical transformation. Mobilization of insecticides can occur via run off (either dissolved or sorbed to soil particles), atmospheric deposition (primary spray drift) or sub-surface flow. Soil erosion from high intensity agriculture, facilitates the transport of insecticides into water bodies. Insecticides are designed to be lethal to insects, so they pose a particular risk to aquatic insects, but they also affect other aquatic invertebrates and fish.   1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES Insecticides can be classified in different ways: • Systemic insecticides are incorporated by treated plants. Insects ingest the insecticide while feeding on the plants. • Contact insecticides are toxic to insects when brought into direct contact. Efficacy is often related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets often improving performance. • Natural insecticides such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem extracts are made by plants as defenses against insects. • Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are systemic insecticides produced by transgenic plants. For instance, a gene that codes for a specific Baccilus thuringinsis biocidal protein was introduced into corn and other species. The plant manufactures the protein which kills the insect when consumed. • In organic insecticides are contact insecticides that is manufactured with metals and include arsenates, copper, and fluorine compounds, which are now seldom used, and sulfur, which is commonly used. • Organic insecticides are contact insecticides that comprise the largest numbers of insecticides available for use today. Insecticides are also classified based on their mode of action. Insecticide type and their modes of action Insecticide type Mode of Action 1 Organochlorine Most act on neurons by causing a sodium/potassium imbalance preventing normal transmission of nerve impulses while some act on the GABA (y-aminobutyric acid) receptor preventing chloride ions from entering the neutrons causing a hyperexcitable state characterized by tremors and convulsions; usually broad-spectrum insecticides that have been taken out of use.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 2 Organophosphate Cause acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition and accumulation of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions causing rapid twitching of voluntary muscles and eventually paralysis; broad-range insecticides, generally the most toxic of all pesticides to vertebrates. 3 Organosulphur Exhibit ovicidal activity (i.e. they kill the egg stage); used only against mites with very low toxicity to other organisms.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 4 Carbamates Cause acetylcholinesterase (AchE) inhibition causing central nervous system effects (i.e. rapid twitching of voluntary muscles and eventually paralysis), very broad spectrum toxicity and highly toxic to fish. 5 Formamidines Inibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase that degrades neurotransmitters causing an accumulation of these compounds; affected insects become quiescent and die, used in the control of OP and carbamate resistant pests.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 6 Pyrethroids Acts by keeping open the sodium channels in euronal membranes affecting both the peripheral and central nervous system causing a hyper-excitable state causing such symptoms as tremors, incordination, hyperactivity and paralysis; effective against most agricultural insect pests; extremecy toxic to fish. 7 Nicotinoids Act on the central nervous system causing irreversible blockage of the postsynaptic nicotinergic acetylcholine receptors; used in the control of sucking insects, soil insects, whiteflues termites, turf insects and the Colorado potato beetle; have generally low toxicity to mammals, birds and fish.   Insecticide type Mode of Action 8 Organotins Inhibit phosphorylation at the site of dinitrophenol uncoupling, preventing the formation of ATP, used extensively against mites on fruit trees, formerly used as an antifouling agent and molluscacide; very toxic to aquatic life. 9 Antibiotics Act by blocking the neurotransmitter GABA at the neuromuscular junction, feeding and egg laying stop shortly after exposure while death may take several days; most promising use of these materials is the control of spider mites, leafminers and other difficult to control greenhouse pests. 10 Spinosyns Acts by disrupting bindiong of acetylcholine in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic cell, effective against caterpillars, lepidopteran larvae, leaf miners, thrips and termites, regarded for its high level of specificity 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS Insecticides can be found almost in all natural habitats, having severe negative effects on natural flora and fauna, biodiversity, water resources and ecosystems, including the equilibrium of agroecosystems. Dependence on insecticides is driven by global agribusiness, which promotes a chemical based solution for food production and pest management in an urban, non agricultural setting, in which powerful corporations are able to control how food is produced and influence policies at a local, national and international level There are economically viable alternatives to insecticides, and pesticide based food systems are not necessarily needed to feed the world’s population. Most insecticides will have an effect on some beneficial insects: predators and parasitoids (parasites that kill their hosts) of insect pests and pollinators. Insecticides may affect higher levels of the food chain since insects are a major food source for many vertebrate species such as birds and reptiles. Any insect in the upper crop canopy at the time of spraying will be exposed to a potentially lethal dose of insecticide at the time of application, depending on insect species and insecticide. Insects such as foraging honey bees entering treated canola fields at flower can be harmed if re-entry occurs shortly after application (El Hasani et al, 2008). The mortality of beneficial insects is an important consideration when spraying complex ecosystems such as forests or perennial agricultural crops that are established over a period of years. Insecticide applications made to agricultural monocultures once within a growing season may not result in long term suppression of beneficial insect populations. Repopulation can occur from untreated fields, roadsides, forage fields and other unsprayed areas. Most insects are not injurious, and, ideally, an insecticide that affects only the target species should be employed. The abundance and diversity of beneficial arthropods is very high in most ecosystems. The abundance of arthropod predators in Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo listed by Munyuli (2006) includes, Coccinellidae, Staphylinidae, Syrphidae, Anthocoridae, Mantidae, Dermaptera, ground beetle, predatory mite, lygaeid bugs, Anthocoridae, dragonflies and spiders. In a study of alfalfa insects in southern Alberta, Harper (1988) reported that only 15 % of about 400 arthropod species (including mites, spiders and insects were considered to be crop pests; the rest had a beneficial impact to the crop and to the farmer. 1.3 AIM The aim of this study is to study insecticides and its effects to the environment. 1.4 OBJECTIVES (1) The long-term objective of this seminar work is to develop an improved understanding of what insecticides are. (2) To know the classification of insecticide on various basis. (3) To update the available scientific knowledge on the effects and mitigation of insecticides on non-target species and the environment.   CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW The mode of action of pesticides is a highly complex subject covering many fields, such as biology and chemistry and has many practical implications. Since the Second World War, many synthetic pesticides, such as DDT, have been introduced. At that time, the knowledge of the biochemical and physiological processes in organisms was not sufficiently clear to make it possible for us to understand properly either the mode of action of the insecticides at the target site or their uptake, distribution or degradation in the environment (Stenersen, 2004). Nowadays, we have better knowledge of how nerve impulses are transmitted, how plants synthesize amino acids, and how fungi invade plant tissue: however, in spite of all this knowledge, textbooks “do not tell us where and why pesticides interfere with the normal processes” (Stenersen, 2004). Concerns over the environmental and human health impacts of chemical control of locusts and grasshoppers have led to considerable interest in developing “mycoinsecticides based on entomopathogenic fungi” (Arthur et al., 2002). Although, these products provide effective control of the pests, they also affect host feeding, fecundity and mobility and potential recycling of the fungus to new generations of insects through horizontal transmission. It is generally recognized that natural enemies play an important role in regulating pest populations. The most severe constraint to realizing the potential of natural enemies in field crops is disruption through the widespread use of insecticides with broad toxicity to both pest and their natural enemies. (Naranjo et al, 2002) Traditionally, measuring the acute toxicity of pesticides to beneficial insects has relied largely on the determination of an acute median lethal dose or concentration (Desneux et al, 2007); however, this approach does not take into account indirect effects induced by pesticides. There are other con sequences, such as sublethal effects on the physiology and behavior of beneficial and natural enemies that must be taken into consideration. Floate et al., (1989), conducted a study of insects found in wheat in Saskatchewan and round that insecticides differed significantly n their contact and residual toxicity on carabid beetle predators of the wheat midge, when applied at maximum recommended field rates. Deltamethrin, the least toxic insecticide, caused approximately 30% mortality in the carabid predators, however its residual toxicity on the soil remained constant for one week Carbofuran and chlorpyrifos, the most toxic contact sprays, caused 83 to 100% mortality. The residual toxicity of carbofuran after one week declined significantly, whereas chiorpyrifos remained high. A spatio-temporal model to study effects of contamination and biological impact of pesticides on non target invertebrates was developed by Jepson (1989). The chronological sequence starts with exposure and uptake. This can have direct and indirect components such as the direct exposure to and uptake of droplets of pesticides at the time of spraying and subsequent indirect exposure via contact with surface residues or ingestion of contaminated pray. Next, the effects of the pesticide may be direct, via lethal or sublethal toxic action, or indirect, through depletion of food resources. The last phase corresponds to a recovery stage, where the population returns to its original densities within the treated area. The non target impact of deltamethrin, a broad spectrum pyrethroid insecticide on insects of maize, was studied by Badji et al., (2006). By spraying insecticide on the canopy of the crop to control fall armyworm, the main pest of maize in the tropics, the chemical inevitably reaches the soil affecting epigeic arthropods. These arthropods have important roles in structuring tropical agro-ecosystems, since they have an important role in the soil accumulation of organic matter, the action of decomposer microorganisms, soil structure and nutrient cycling, incidence of soil nernatodes and fungal plant diseases, as well as encouraging plant root development. A similar study conducted by Wiktelius et al., in 1999 to assess the effects of the organochiorine insecticide lindane on non target organisms in African maize agroecosystems. They concluded that lindane reduced the number of Coliembola in over 80%, ants were reduced by 64% and spiders were reduced by 53%. Another finding was that lindane significantly reduced organic matter breakdown in over 45% of the trials. Another study on the predatory fauna in cornfields and response to neonicotinoid seed treatment was conducted by Aibajes et al., (2003). Application of the insecticide imidacloprid as a seed dressing is a common practice to prevent the damage by certain species of rootworms. Imidacloprid is a nitromethylene derivate with a mode of action-similar to that of nicotine, acting on the postsynaptic membranes of insects. It has a systemic action in plants and contact toxicity. After studying the effects of this insecticide for a period of five years, the authors reported little or no difference in yield between treated and untreated crops. They concluded that a combination of removal of predators and herbivores in the treated plots and control of herbivores by predators in the untreated plot explained their results. Therefore, the cost was not compensated by the benefits, adding only the negative effects on the environment and natural enemies. The study, also, reported the integrated effects of the chemical seed dressing on predators because these may be affected through different pathways: 1. Direct exposure of soil fauna to the insecticide, 2. Eating contaminated prey or sucking phloem from plant, 3. The consequence of depriving predators of their prey, 4. The seed dressing may affect the facultative predators through direct ingestion of the insecticide or metabolites from pollen or plant tissue. In temperate ecosystems in particular, carabid, staphylinid beetles and spiders are important for their biomass, diversity and their quality as predators of phytophagous organisms. Above ground applications of pesticides affects sensitive components of the soil ecosystem in arable areas (Everts et al., 1989). Dixon & McKiniay (1992), studied the effect of insecticide-treated arid untreated potatoes on the pitfall trap catches of aphids. They reported significant increases in trap catches of beetles (natural predators of aphids) in treated plots than in the controls; they speculated that insecticides cause a decrease in the aphid (prey) population, invoking an increase in hungry, active beetles more likely to fail into pitfall traps. Hungry carabid beetles, they concluded, are more active than satiated ones. Grant (1989) monitored the insecticide side effects of tsetse fly spraying in Africa. Some of his findings were that many terrestrial and aquatic insects suffer from sublethal effects. Insects dislodged to the ground or carried downstream can not be characterized as mortality. Similarly, tens of thousands of disoriented aquatic larvae and nymphs enter the drift for a few hours after spraying but only some of them will re-attach themselves, recover and reach maturity. Many insects will be lost to predation and drowning during recovery from the toxic chemical. The complete picture of insecticide impact on non target populations must take into account individual recovery, not least because ecosystem recovery is partly dependent upon it. Migratory locusts invade crops of Madagascar and require applications of insecticides over several thousands of square kilometers where non target arthropods can be affected. One of the insecticides used by Peveling et al., (1999) was the organophosphate fenitrothion, which caused medium to long term population declines of more than 75% of epigeal non target insect taxa, such as springtails and ants. The insecticide also impacted non target grasshoppers, reducing them by 50 to 60%. The authors proposed an integrated control approach adapted to the particular conservation priorities of the area, keeping in mind that the least toxic or hazardous product is not always the most environmentally safe. The concept that pest control should be based on economic as well as ecological considerations is a pervasive force in integrated pest management (Naranjo et al., 2002). The literature provides plenty of evidence of insecticide effects on non target species. Since there is more than direct mortality induced by pesticides on beneficial insects, Desneux et al., (2007) listed the sublethal effects of pesticides on community ecology. CHAPTER THREE 3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF INSECTICIDES 3.1 EFFECTS ON NON TARGET SPECIES Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially. 3.1.1 AIR Insecticides can contribute to air pollution. Insecticide drift occurs when insecticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Insecticides that are applied to crops can volatilize and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife. Weather conditions at the time of application as well as temperature and relative humidity change the spread of the insecticide in the air. As wind velocity increases so does the spray drift and exposure. Low relative humidity and high temperature result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable insecticides in the outdoor environment is there for often dependent on the season. Also, droplets of sprayed insecticides or particles from insecticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas, or pesticides may adhere to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles. Ground spraying produces less insecticide drift than aerial spraying does. Insecticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called tropospheric ozone. Insecticide use accounts for 6 percent of total tropospheric ozone levels. 3.1.2 SOIL Many of the chemicals used in insecticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decade and adversely affect soil conservation. The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20 – 40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of insecticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down insecticides. Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of insecticides in soil. Depending on the chemical nature of the insecticide, such processes control directly the transportation from soil to water, and in turn to air and our food. 3.1.3 WATER Insecticides are found to pollute stream and over 90% of wells samples in a study by the Geological survey. Insecticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater studies showed that insecticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and ground water. Insecticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and state of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of insecticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of insecticide that would reach surface water. There are four major routes through which insecticides reach the water; it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate or leach through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled. 3.1.4 EFFECT ON PLANTS Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by insecticides in the soil. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of these symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Insecticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that pollinate plants including through the mechanism of colony collapse disorder (CCD), in which worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators means a reduction in crop yields. Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect bee foraging behaviour. On the other side, insecticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth. 3.1.5 EFFECT ON ANIMALS Many kinds of animals are harmed by pesticides, leading many countries to regulate insecticide usage through biodiversity Action Plans. Animals including humans may be poisoned by insecticide residues that remain on food, for example when animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying. Insecticides can eliminate some animals’ essential food sources, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Residues can travel up the food chain, for example birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed insecticides., some insecticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard. 3.1.6 AQUATIC LIFE Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by insecticide contaminated water. Insecticides are typically more toxic to aquatic life. Insecticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream. Application of insecticides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants decay and consume the water’s oxygen, suffocating the fish. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some insecticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes that reduce fish populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease and decreased predator avoidance. Insecticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off 200 plankton, the main source of food for young fish. Insecticides kill off insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators. The faster a given insecticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. 3.1.7 HUMANS Insecticides can enter the body through inhalation of aerosols, dust and vapour that contain insecticides, through oral exposure by consuming food/water, and through skin exposure by direct contact. Insecticides secrete into soils and gourd water which can end up in drinking water and insecticide spray can drift and pollute the air. The effects of insecticides on human health depend on the toxicity of the chemical and the lengthy and magnitude of exposure. Farm workers and their families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through direct contact. Every human contains insecticides in their fat cells. Children are more susceptible and sensitive to insecticides, because they are still developing and have a weaker immune system than adults.’ Children may be more exposed due to their closer proximity to the ground and tendency to put unfamiliar objects in their mouth. Toxic residue in food may contribute to a child’s exposure. The chemical can bioaccumulate in the body over time. Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with insect ides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America such as leukemia, may be a result of somatic cell mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effect on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alternations have been observed in exposes. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce undescended testicles. Insecticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes.   CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1 CONCLUSION Because of the problems associated with the heavy use of some chemical insecticides, current insect-control practice combines their use with biological methods in an approach called INTEGRATED CONTROL. In this approach, a minimal use of insecticide may be combined with the use of pest-resistant crop varieties, the use of crop raising methods that inhibit pest proliferation, the release of organisms that are predators or parasites of the pest species, and the disruption of the pest’s reproduction by the release of sterilized pests and the setting of traps and baits. 4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS • Practicing integrated pest management can significantly reduce the amount of insecticides needed to control many insect problems. • Using a targeted insecticide minimizes the risk to beneficial or non-target insects or species. • Using more than one insecticide product in the same location can increase or decrease each one’s effectiveness. It may also result in a greater risk to health and the environment so it should be avoided. • Insecticidal baits can be used instead of spraying large areas, especially for social insects like ants. This can decrease the risk of exposure but do not place baits where children and pets would access.   REFERENCES Abo El-Ghar, G. and El-Sayed, A. (1992). Long-term effects of insecticides on Diaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh), a parasite of the cabbage aphid. Pesticide sciences 36:109-114. Arthurs, S., Matthew, B. and Juergen, L. (2002). Field observations of the effects of fenitrothion and Metharhizium anisopliae van acridium on non-target ground dwelling arthropods in the sathel. Biological Control 26, 333-340. Badji, C., Guedes, R., Silva, A., Correa, A., Queiroz, M. and Michereff-Filho, M. (2006). Non-target impact of deltamethrin on soil arthropods of maize fields under conventional and no-tillage cultivation. Journal of Applied Entomology 131(1), 50-58. Bostanian, N., Laroeque, N., chouinard, G. and Coderre, D. (2001). Baseline toxicity of several pesticides to Hvaliodes vitripermis (Say) (Hemiptera: Miridae). Pesticide Manager Science, 57, 1007-1010. Bourassa, S., Carcamo, H., Larney, F., and Spence, J.(2008) Carabid assemblages (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in a rotation of three different corps in southern Alberta, Canada A comparison of sustainable and conventional farming. Environmental entomology: 37(5), 1214-1223. Class, Thomas J., Kintrup, J. (1991). “Pyrethroids and Household insecticides: analysis, indoor exposure and persistence” Fresenius’ Journal of Analytical Chemistry 340 (340): 446. Colin, M.E., Bonmatin, J.M., Moineau, I, (2004). “A method to quantity and analyze the foraging activity of honey bees. Relevance to the sublethal effects induced by systemic insecticides”. Achieves of Environmental contamination and Toxicology 47(3) 387-395. Fishel, F.M., (2009). Pesticide Toxicity Profile. Neonicotinoid Pesticides IFAS publication # p1-80. Karl Grandin, ed (1948). “Paul Muller Biography”. Les. Prix Nobel. The Nobel foundation. Retrieved 2008-07-24. Oldroyd, B,P. (2007). “Wha’s killing American Honey Bees?”. PLoS Biology 5 (6): e168. Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL. (2007)). Wildlife and Pesticides – Peanuts. North Carolina Corporative Extension Serive. Van Emden, H.F., Peakall, David B. (3o June 1996). Beyond Silent Spring. Springer. ISBN 978-0-014-72800-6.

ASSIGNMENT ON DISCUSS ON ANY KEY ACTOR OF NATION-BUILDING IN NIGERIA

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE OWERRI P.M .B 1036, OWERRI IMO STATE ASSIGNMENT ON DISCUSS ON ANY KEY ACTOR OF NATION-BUILDING IN NIGERIA WRITTEN BY GROUP NAMES: REG. NO: AGBO HOPE ADAORA 14/0065/PS AMAJUOYI UDOCHUKWU DEBORAH ANUTUBA CHARLES 14/0056/PS EBERE JOSEPH OKECHUKWU EWURUM IRENE 14/0094/PS OJINWADI FAVOUR C. 14/0078/PS OKWARA NKECHI P. 14/0015/PS ONYIA COSMA O. 14/0093/PS OSIGWE MOSES O. 14/0062/PS UZOKA BLESSING CHIDINMA DEPT: PURCHASING AND SUPPLY LEVEL: NDI MORNING COURSE TITLE: CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION II COURSE CODE: GNS 131 LECTURER: HIS EXCELLENCY DATE: AUGUST, 2015. ABSTRACT One of the major setbacks in Nigeria is nation-building. Until very recently, plethora of explanations on the crawling pace of development in Nigeria tends to pay infinitesimal attention to the centrality of nation building element. It is no surprise therefore that since 1999 when Nigeria returned to civil rule insecurity tends to have hampered national development. Nation building is evidently the pillar upon which every meaningful development could be achieved and sustained. The development strides in most Western Capitalist States that place premium on lend credence to this assertion. Whilst Nigeria is endowed with abundant resources, Negligence to numerous challenges of in security of the environment appears to have created porous under national building condition that engendered violence and Retards development. INTRODUCTION Nation-building refers to the process of constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the state. This process aims at the unification of the people or peoples within the state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run. Nation-building can involve the use of propaganda or major infrastructure development to foster social harmony and economic growth (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia) Originally, nation-building referred to the efforts of newly-independent nations, notably the nations of Africa, to reshape colonial territories that had been carved out by colonial powers without regard to ethnic or other boundaries. These reformed states would then become viable and coherent national entities. Nation-building included the creation of superficial national paraphernalia such as flags, anthems, national days, national stadiums, national airlines, national languages, and national myths. At a deeper level, national identity needed to be deliberately constructed by moulding different groups into a nation, especially since colonialism had used divide and rule tactics to maintain its domination. THE CONCEPT OF NATION, STATE AND COUNTRY In common language we speak of "countries," or "nations," or "states" or, sometimes "nation-states." While the terms country, state, and nation are often used interchangeably, there is a clear difference between the concepts. We generally have roughly the same thing in mind when we use all these words. When we begin to conceptualize them, it will become clear that there are differences between "nations," "states," and "countries." To understand the notion of nation-building, one needs to have some definition of what a nation is. According to Carolyn Stephenson (2005), early conceptions of nation defined it as a group or race of people who shared history, traditions, and culture, sometimes religion, and usually language. Thus the United Kingdom comprises four nations, the English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh. The people of a nation generally share a common national identity, and part of nation-building is the building of that common identity. Today the word nation is often used synonymously with state, as in the United Nations. But a state is more properly the governmental apparatus by which a nation rules itself. FOR THE EVOLUTION OF NATION-BUILDING, ALMOND AND COLEMAN (1960) DEFINED INPUT FUNCTIONS AS: 1. Political socialisation and recruitment. 2. Interest articulation. 3. Interest aggregation. 4. Political communication. Output functions were: 1. Rule-making. 2. Rule application. 3. Rule adjudication Lucian Pye identified multiple meanings of political development with, among them: • as prerequisite to economic development, • as politics typical of industrial societies, • as political modernization, • as administrative and legal development, • as mass mobilization and participation, • as the building of democracy, and • as stability and orderly change. KEY FOUNDATIONS FOR NATION-BUILDING Until we adjust our minds to focus on the foundations required for building any nation, our desire to see a developed Nigeria will be a mirage. Before we look at the key foundations for nation-building, it is pertinent to address the common misconceptions about nation-building 1) A nation is built solely by a great political leader: This is the most common misconception about nation-building and is the main reason why most Nigerians do not participate in building the nation. Let me agree that a visionary political leader is a prerequisite for nation-building but that visionary leader will make very little impact if the most of the citizens do not support the vision of such leader within their own circle of influence. By support, we are not only referring to words but significantly in actions. So, as much as we need a visionary leader, a visionary leader does need a people who will provide the platform for him to execute his programme. Our history has a few personalities we like to describe as people who lived before their time and in fact, one was called the best president Nigeria never had. This is the result of leaders with vision, courage and ambition limited by lack of citizenry support. I have discussed this in more details in my article ‘Great Political Leader or Great People' to be featured very shortly. But it must be said that a nation is not built by one great leader and whenever it was attempted in history, such a leader was a dictator disliked by his people (and that was not truly nation-building). 2) A nation is built through infrastructural development: Firstly, it has to be understood that nation-building is not primarily about infrastructural development but about human development through freedom of expression and association. As stated above, there were a few leaders who built their nations into great political and economic power but in all cases, they are nations with suppressed people. Such nations would be less attractive to most Nigerians because we, like any human being, price our freedom dearly. To illustrate this point, let's imagine for one moment that a military or communist regime came to power and the ‘great' Head of State provided us with steady light supply, water, hospitals, schools and many other amenities but they would deprive us the freedom to choose what or where we studied and the freedom of religion, movement and speech. These are just some of the conditions of a dictatorial rule because he must be absolute in power to achieve his aims and sustain his power. We could turn the argument around and say what about infrastructural development in a democratic dispensation. The question I would ask is who builds these infrastructures? We have sufficient evidence in our nation to illustrate the point that the push for infrastructural development has led to high level of corruption and substandard execution of contracts. This is not to mention the poor maintenance of such infrastructure. Another point I have observed is the high number of accidents on roads that have been newly built, high level of unprofessionalism at newly built hospitals, power plants and schools. So, in cases where infrastructures were provided, it did not amount to the development of our nation. Like all Nigerians, I desire to see first class infrastructural development in our nation but that is not the foundation for nation-building. It is the fruit of a solid foundation. Look at any important company in Nigeria with significant assets and you will observe that they have expatriates in key positions to ensure high standard are applied and maintained in their operations. This goes to illustrate that without these expatriate, many of these businesses will collapse or at the least drop their standards. Also note that the best construction company in Nigeria is German owned and managed, delivering the best quality of work and on time, in most instances. So, when we hammer on about the need for infrastructural development for nation-building we must remember to ask who will build and maintain them. This will point us towards the foundation for nation-building. 3) Credible elections is what we need: In my recent article on Credible elections or credible candidates (read on my blog http://nationarise.wordpress.com/), I highlighted that as much as credible elections are essential, of greater importance was credible candidates available for us to choose at elections. Credible elections will not build a first class nation until credible candidates are produced by the political parties through transparent internal democracy. This is where the main focus should be even though I do agree that credible elections is the process for putting the credible candidates into elective offices 4) Bloody revolution is the solution to our problems: The proponents of this school of thought are increasing by the day due to our situation seemingly going from bad to worse. What this view is expressing is we can only build Nigeria when a bloody revolution or coup will eliminate our political leaders and provide a fresh start in our development. This view is given further credence due to what occurred in the history of our West African brothers (Ghana) and is famously called, the Jerry Rawlings Solution (JRS). The primary issue with this misconception is the thinking that killing our political leaders will solve our problems when we all know the malaise in our society is as prominent in every facet of our society. So, who will make the elimination list and what will be the criteria for their selection? The outcome of this misconception, if ever it was to implemented, will not lead to the building of our nation but will rather further divide our nation along ethnic lines (as some groups will feel the purge was more on their side), see the rise of a dictator (see first misconception), the suppression of our freedom and most of all, discourage our participation in nation-building through public service. The Jerry Rawlings Solution was successful because of factors that are lacking in Nigeria and it is those factors that came to bear when he had to transform his military regime into a democratic dispensation and also when he failed in his attempt to handover (at the end of his tenure) to his own party presidential candidate. We have to honest and admit that Ghanaians are more politically sophisticated than Nigerians (mainly due to a longer democratic dispensation) and their role in ensuring the success of the ‘JRS' cannot be underemphasised when discussing bloody revolution as a foundation for nation-building. They provided the foundation for the Rawlings revolution and for the building of their nation. Besides, the Jerry Rawlings Solution was applied to a military regime and not a democratic administration. In our case, our corruption is from top to bottom and will require the elimination of at the very least 5,000 Nigerians who make the list of previous Heads of State, current President, present & past State Governors (including military administrators), past & present Federal Ministers & State Commissioners, past & present Local Government Chairmen from 774 LGAs, past & present principal officers of the National and State Assemblies, past and present Directors & Permanent Secretaries from state & federal ministries and MDAs, etc. I hope I have illustrated in a small way that we lack the foundation for any bloody revolution and therefore, this idea is a misconception. True change has to be voluntarily and not by force. 5) Nigeria is a rich country: This is another leading misconception for nation-building and it has led to wastage, corruption, complacency and apathy. But are we really a rich nation? No, we are not. Though many Nigerians really do think we are a rich nation and that has led to us (we & our political leaders) spending money like rich nations and this is money we really do not have. I say money we really do not have because when compared to the size of our population, environmental challenges, poor human resources (uneducated majority) and underdevelopment, our current earnings is quite insufficient. This is a fact, we have by far the largest population in OPEC and Saudi Arabia for example, produces about 4 times our output but has an estimated 27 million people (Our African brothers Angola with 18 million people produce almost the same output with Nigeria). But this misconception of wealth that has been untapped and remains a potential, has produced an attitude of more-than-enough-for-everyone. That means, we can spend our little resources with reckless abandon and we will still develop our nation. No wonder, corruption thrives in all facet of our society and what I find interesting is this wasteful lifestyle applies to those managing government funds and individuals managing personal funds. The reality is this, someone (or a country) is rich not based on potential but the assets he has. In the case of a country, first class infrastructure, significant number of educated skilled manpower, integrity & high work ethics of her people, large locally owned conglomerates, significant investments abroad and diplomatic influence. Some rich nations do not even have the natural resources we have but they have the skilled human resources (not referring to people with just qualifications but people who deliver a high quality of work). Another way to look at it is to count the cost of investments required to provide & maintain at least 100,000 megawatts (the power supply size required for an industrial nation our size) or the cost of building & maintaining first class motorways, airports, railway track with high speed train (by the way, no nation our size survives without an efficient rail system) or the cost of dealing with environment degradation (oil polluted land & water, erosion and deforestation) or the cost of taking our oil sector to the next level in investment & also investing in alternative sources of income in preparation for when oil runs dry. I reiterate the building of these infrastructures is just part of the cost, as there also significant cost to maintain them. When we begin to think like this, we realise that we are not a rich nation and should begin to have a conservative approach to spending both in our nation resources and in our private lives. This would also shift focus to the true foundation for nation-building. 6) The youths are the solution: I worry everything I hear this misconception being expressed and it has become so rampant amongst Nigerians 40 years and above. For many in this age group, we believe Nigeria will not change in our generation because our generation is a waste and so, the only solution is to focus on the youths. This misconception is so convenient for us because it is another attempt by us to shift the responsibility from ourselves to the next generation. This is a misconception because if any change is to occur in the youths, it must first start with this generation. After all, we can only pass on what we have or believe and not what we don't have or believe. Yes, there is need to put in a lot of work in developing the right values in our youth but there is no greater way to teach a person values than by modelling and mentoring. The youths will mainly do what they see and not what they hear. So, if we carry on as a failed generation we inevitably will pass on that attitude to the next generation. The youths are not the foundation for nation-building because the destiny of the nation is not in their hands and if we refuse our role as the foundation we can't expect the youths to have good role models and mentors that will model what to do when the baton has been passed over to them. These are just the main misconceptions that have hindered the building of our nation. But the foundations for nation-building are Family, Education and Faith, and the people are the only raw material used to lay & to build on that foundation. Every developed nation has been built through these foundations and when such nations witness a regression of their development (as several do now), their approach is to strengthen these foundations because they had become weakened. If there is to be any revolution it has to happen inside the people or for credible elections we will need candidates which is the people or build first class infrastructures we will need people well trained and committed to excellence in their jobs or to have a great political leader we will need people who are well trained, mentored and experienced in political education from secondary school days to political parties period. FAMILY The first and primary foundation for nation-building is the family. Personally, I don't think we appreciate the power for change that exist in the family and this is how Winston Churchill, the famous British Orator & World War II Prime Minister put it, "There is no doubt that it is around the family and the home that all the greatest virtues, the most dominating virtues of human society, are created, strengthened and maintained." There are two significant developments that should take place in families. The first being a transformed parent in thoughts, words and actions. This is a family where the parent recognises that they have huge influence over the primary cell of the nation and if they desire a developed Nigeria, they must start building through changes in their own lives. Reason being, it is only when they are being transformed that they can qualify to impact effective parenting into their children. In my personal experience, I have observed that my children watch what I do and this has impacted them more than what I tell them. Besides, the value of what I tell them is mainly based on me applying this in my life for them to see. We cannot continue to abuse Nigeria with our words and manipulate the system with our actions and not expect our children to model these same attitudes. The second significant development is effective parenting through our transformed lives. Our transformed lives will reflect in our communications, modelling and mentoring of our children. This is how we will see transformation in our generation (amongst us the parents) and the right equipping of the future generation. Only then will we see the development of the human resources required for nation-building. It is time for active participation by fathers in the training of their children and for mothers to delegate less of their role to househelps and childminders. Providing clothes, food, shelter and even the best private education is inadequate in raising a generation that will aspire for greatness in our nation. It is also important for parents to seek out children, especially those without fathers and provide effective parenting to them. We grow as a community. EDUCATION According to Toshitsugu Uesawa, Japan's Ambassador to Nigeria, "Education, including vocational training, that can produce an inventive and creative workforce, is the foundation of nation-building." Education is not just simply sending our children to school, it involves a lot more. As a foundation for nation-building, our educational system needs a revamp of her curriculum to reflect how we want to build our nation. It's got to be peculiar to our needs and also to encourage the expression of whatever gifts & talents are inherent in our youths. That is why family is important because it is in the family that a talent of a child is observed and support is provided to enable full expression of that talent to the benefit of the nation. I believe there are a lot more careers available than just being a lawyer, accountant, banker and oil worker. We have seen that people can make a career out of sports, entertainment (music, comedy, acting), fashion, etc. But there are more careers that can come out of our youths because I believe as a creation of God we have such an unlimited range of talents and gifts. If we agree that Education is a key foundation for nation-building then we must agree that it is too precious to leave solely in the hands of government & private educators. It requires the involvement of a critical mass of Nigerians in volunteering time to build infrastructures & to teach, give financial support, provide effective monitoring of school performances, etc. It also requires a sacrificial commitment from our current breed of teachers. The development of our nation will happen with the education of not only our children at the best private schools but also through the effective education of a critical mass of Nigerians (both children & adults). The best guarantee of our children's security in the tomorrow's Nigeria is the education of people who will live & work beside them. FAITH To build a nation, we must believe in something greater than ourselves and when that happens, we are willing to give of ourselves sacrificially to that cause. Faith is the foundation that establishes this vision in our hearts and provides the guide on the steps we should take in our daily lives. It is therefore essential for our religious organisations to shift focus of their messaging to reflect the core objective of the primary faiths in Nigeria (Christianity and Islam) – serving God and serving man. Churches and mosque have taken a serious battering of late because many Nigerians see them as deviating from their core objectives. More so, these organisations have been too influential in our nation, more than the family. The family is the primary cell and not the church or mosque, so the religious organisations must ensure the central place of the family is established and protected. I believe when Churches and Mosques recognise their role as a key foundation in nation-building, Nigeria will witness the strengthening of families, the increase in affordable but qualitative education to most Nigerians from under-privileged backgrounds and messaging that will see Nigerians put the nation first (and not self). In effect, Faith plays a key role in supporting the other two foundations for nation-building and so having faith is a good thing for Nigeria but we have to get back to the basis of that faith. SUMMARY In summary, we have to stop focusing of issues that takes away our personal responsibility as citizens of this great nation and become responsible for our nation through our families, our educational system and our faith. Only then, will our dream of a developed Nigeria become a reality and that will surely include great leaders in all facet of our society, credible elections with credible candidates, first class infrastructural development and maintenance, development of our youths & mobilisation of the older generation and above all, a rich nation which is a blessing to our citizens and to the continent of Africa. RECOMMENDATION In the modern era, nation-building referred to the efforts of newly independent nations, notably the nations of Africa but also in the Balkans, to redefine the populace of territories that had been carved out by colonial powers or empires without regard to ethnic, religious, or other boundaries. These reformed states would then become viable and coherent national entities. We therefore recommend that Nation-building includes the creation of national paraphernalia such as flags, anthems, national days, national stadiums, national airlines, national languages, and national myths. At a deeper level, national identity needed to be deliberately constructed by molding different ethnic groups into a nation, especially since in many newly established states colonial practices of divide and rule had resulted in ethnically heterogeneous populations. CONCLUSION Nation-Building is a highly complex and risky undertaking. It involves a wide range of actors, of interests, mechanisms, strategies and potential outcomes. It can lead to stable, successful Nation-States or to war and chaos. It is the more complicated the more it is taking place in heterogeneous, even fragmented societies. The questions of ethnicity and other forms of political identities is therefore one of the key factors. But at this point in the research process it looks like the state being at the center of impor-tance. The state in Nation-Building processes generally is both an actor and a means, it is both the problem and part of the solution. The state structures and their relation to different segments of society are at the core of Nation-Building. Many sectors of society may try to influence, to infiltrate or even control or conquer it. The state can help regulate and moderate societal processes of integration, or it can become a tool of dominance of some elites over the whole of society or competing elites and contribute to fragmentation. The state and its relationship to diverse and heterogeneous societies may very well be the key point to analyze complex processes of Nation-Building. REFERENCES Darden, Keith; Mylonas, Harris (1 March 2012). "The Promethean Dilemma: Third-party State-building in Occupied Territories". Ethnopolitics 11 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1080/17449057.2011.596127. Dobbins, James, Seth G. Jones, Keith Crane, and Beth Cole DeGrasse. 2007. The Beginner’s Guide to Nation-Building. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation. Engin, Kenan: 'Nation-Building' - Theoretische Betrachtung und Fallbeispiel: Irak, Nomos Verlag, Baden Baden 2013, ISBN 978-3-8487-0684-6. Fukuyama, Francis. 2004. "State of the Union: Nation-Building 101," Atlantic Monthly, January/February. Harris Mylonas. 2010. "Assimilation and its Alternatives: Caveats in the Study of Nation-Building Policies", In Rethinking Violence: States and Non-State Actors in Conflict, eds. Adria Lawrence and Erica Chenoweth. BCSIA Studies in International Security, MIT Press. Hodge, Nathan (2011), Armed Humanitarians: The Rise of the Nation Builders, New York City: Bloomsbury USA. James, Paul (1996). Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community. London: Sage Publications. James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In —Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of Abstract Community. London: Sage Publications. Mylonas, Harris (2012). The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. New York: Cambridge University Press. Smith, Anthony. 1986. "State-Making and Nation-Building" in John Hall (ed.), States in History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 228–263 Smith, Anthony. 1986. "State-Making and Nation-Building" in John Hall (ed.), States in History. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 228–263.

Anarchism Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates stateless societies often defined as self-governed voluntary institutions, but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of human relations, including, but not limited to, the state system. As an anti-dogmatic philosophy, anarchism draws on many currents of thought and strategy. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular world view, instead fluxing and flowing as a philosophy. There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications. Anarchism is usually considered a radical left-wing ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism, mutualism, or participatory economics. History Origins The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, and in later centuries by Zhuangzi and Bao Jingyan. Zhuangzi's philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, "A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation." Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, also introduced similar topics. Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that "The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ and ... the first anarchist society was that of the apostles." In early Islamic history, some manifestations of anarchic thought are found during the Islamic civil war over the Caliphate, where the Kharijites insisted that the imamate is a right for each individual within the Islamic society. Later, some Muslim scholars, such as Amer al-Basri and Abu Hanifa, led movements of boycotting the rulers, paving the way to the waqf (endowments) tradition, which served as an alternative to and asylum from the centralized authorities of the emirs. But such interpretations reverberates subversive religious conceptions like the aforementioned seemingly anarchistic Taoist teachings and that of other anti-authoritarian religious traditions creating a complex relationship regarding the question as to whether or not anarchism and religion are compatible. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry. First International and the Paris Commune In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848, during which ten countries had experienced brief or long-term social upheaval as groups carried out nationalist uprisings. After most of these attempts at systematic change ended in failure, conservative elements took advantage of the divided groups of socialists, anarchists, liberals, and nationalists, to prevent further revolt. In Spain Ramón de la Sagra established the anarchist journal El Porvenir in La Coruña in 1845 which was inspired by Proudhon´s ideas. The Catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party. According to George Woodcock "These translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870, but before that time Proudhonian ideas, as interpreted by Pi, already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860's." Organised labour In response, unions across the United States prepared a general strike in support of the event. On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when strikebreakers attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd. The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square. A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer. In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other. Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed. Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labour movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair, and was a setback for the labour movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight-hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair. Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of International Workers' Day on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday. Propaganda of the deed and illegalism Italian-American anarchist Luigi Galleani. His followers, known as Galleanists, carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on 'tyrants' and 'enemies of the people' Some anarchists, such as Johann Most, advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counter-revolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda." By the 1880s, people inside and outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan, "propaganda of the deed" to refer to individual bombings, regicides, and tyrannicides. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal 'expropriations'." Illegalism as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("individual reappropriation") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary invitations to revolt.". France's Bonnot Gang was the most famous group to embrace illegalism. However, as soon as 1887, important figures in the anarchist movement distanced themselves from such individual acts. Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in Le Révolté that "a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite". A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favour of collective revolutionary action, for example through the trade union movement. The anarcho-syndicalist, Fernand Pelloutier, argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the labour movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without "the individual dynamiter." Post-war years Anarchism sought to reorganise itself after the war and in this context the organisational debate between synthesis anarchism and platformism took importance once again especially in the anarchist movements of Italy and France. The Mexican Anarchist Federation was established in 1945 after the Anarchist Federation of the Centre united with the Anarchist Federation of the Federal District. In the early 1940s, the Antifascist International Solidarity and the Federation of Anarchist Groups of Cuba merged into the large national organisation Asociación Libertaria de Cuba (Cuban Libertarian Association). From 1944 to 1947, the Bulgarian Anarchist Communist Federation reemerged as part of a factory and workplace committee movement, but was repressed by the new Communist regime. In 1945 in France the Fédération Anarchiste and the anarchosyndicalist trade union Confédération nationale du travail was established in the next year while the also synthesist Federazione Anarchica Italiana was founded in Italy. Korean anarchists formed the League of Free Social Constructors in September 1945 and in 1946 the Japanese Anarchist Federation was founded. An International Anarchist Congress with delegates from across Europe was held in Paris in May 1948.[139] After World War II, an appeal in the Fraye Arbeter Shtime detailing the plight of German anarchists and called for Americans to support them. By February 1946, the sending of aid parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large-scale operation. The Federation of Libertarian Socialists was founded in Germany in 1947 and Rudolf Rocker wrote for its organ, Die Freie Gesellschaft, which survived until 1953. In 1956 the Uruguayan Anarchist Federation was founded. In 1955 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina renamed itself as the Argentine Libertarian Federation. The Syndicalist Workers' Federation was a syndicalist group in active in post-war Britain, and one of Solidarity Federation's earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain. Unlike the AFB, which was influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself, the SWF decided to pursue a more definitely syndicalist, worker-centred strategy from the outset. Anarchism continued to influence important literary and intellectual personalities of the time, such as Albert Camus, Herbert Read, Paul Goodman, Dwight Macdonald, Allen Ginsberg, George Woodcock, Leopold Kohr, Julian Beck, John Cage and the French Surrealist group led by André Breton, which now openly embraced anarchism and collaborated in the Fédération Anarchiste. Anarcho-pacifism became influential in the Anti-nuclear movement and anti war movements of the time as can be seen in the activism and writings of the English anarchist member of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Alex Comfort or the similar activism of the American catholic anarcho-pacifists Ammon Hennacy and Dorothy Day. Anarcho-pacifism became a "basis for a critique of militarism on both sides of the Cold War." The resurgence of anarchist ideas during this period is well documented in Robert Graham's Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977). Contemporary anarchism The famous okupas squat near Parc Güell, overlooking Barcelona. Squatting was a prominent part of the emergence of renewed anarchist movement from the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s. On the roof: "Occupy and Resist" A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s. Anarchism was influential in the Counterculture of the 1960s and anarchists actively participated in the late sixties students and workers revolts. In 1968 in Carrara, Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France (the Fédération Anarchiste), the Federazione Anarchica Italiana of Italy and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile. In the United Kingdom in the 1970s this was associated with the punk rock movement, as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like that of Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark, squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the Freetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century, a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged. Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha-feminism, they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber and anarchist historian Andrej Grubacic have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas", and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Group of Eight, and the World Economic Forum. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction, and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless, anonymous cadres known as black blocs; other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include security culture, affinity groups and the use of decentralised technologies such as the internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at WTO conference in Seattle in 1999. According to anarchist scholar Simon Critchley, "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary neo-liberalism ... One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally." International anarchist federations in existence include the International of Anarchist Federations, the International Workers' Association, and International Libertarian Solidarity. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated at around 100,000 for 2003. Other active syndicalist movements include in Sweden the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden and the Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation; the CNT-AIT in France; the Union Sindicale Italiana in Italy; in the US Workers Solidarity Alliance and the UK Solidarity Federation and Anarchist Federation. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World, claiming 3,000 paying members, and the International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active.[citation needed] Anarchist schools of thought Anarchist schools of thought had been generally grouped in two main historical traditions, individualist anarchism and social anarchism, which have some different origins, values and evolution. The individualist wing of anarchism emphasises negative liberty, i.e. opposition to state or social control over the individual, while those in the social wing emphasise positive liberty to achieve one's potential and argue that humans have needs that society ought to fulfill, "recognizing equality of entitlement". In a chronological and theoretical sense, there are classical – those created throughout the 19th century – and post-classical anarchist schools – those created since the mid-20th century and after. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist thought is philosophical anarchism, which embodies the theoretical stance that the state lacks moral legitimacy without accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism philosophical anarchism may accept the existence of a minimal state as unfortunate, and usually temporary, "necessary evil" but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was "anarchism without adjectives", a call for toleration first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the "bitter debates" of anarchist theory at the time. In abandoning the hyphenated anarchisms (i.e. collectivist-, communist-, mutualist– and individualist-anarchism), it sought to emphasise the anti-authoritarian beliefs common to all anarchist schools of thought. Classical anarchist schools of thought Mutualism Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. Proudhon proposed spontaneous order, whereby organisation emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does "what he wishes and only what he wishes" and where "business transactions alone produce the social order." It is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance. For this reason, much in contrast to some of his theoretical statements concerning ultimate spontaneous self-governance, Proudhon was heavily involved in French parliamentary politics and allied himself not with Anarchist but Socialist factions of workers movements and, in addition to advocating state-protected charters for worker-owned cooperatives, promoted certain nationalization schemes during his life of public service. Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to the American mutualist William Batchelder Greene, each worker in the mutualist system would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount." Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Individualist anarchism Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice, which some consider the first expression of anarchism. Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good. An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism," or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner. Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy. According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire, without regard for God, state, or morality. To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality". Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will, which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state. Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals. "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent ... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.". Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty. From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a free love and birth control advocates (see Anarchism and issues related to love and sex), individualist naturists nudists (see anarcho-naturism), freethought and anti-clerical activists as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation (see European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France). These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others. Social anarchism Social anarchism calls for a system with common ownership of means of production and democratic control of all organisations, without any government authority or coercion. It is the largest school of thought in anarchism. Social anarchism rejects private property, seeing it as a source of social inequality (while retaining respect for personal property), and emphasises cooperation and mutual aid. Collectivist anarchism Collectivist anarchism, also referred to as "revolutionary socialism" or a form of such, is a revolutionary form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin and Johann Most. Collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivised. This was to be achieved through violent revolution, first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence, or propaganda by the deed, which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivise the means of production. However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. This position was criticised by anarchist communists as effectively "uphold[ing] the wages system". Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society. Anarchist, communist and collectivist ideas are not mutually exclusive; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labour, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. Anarcho-communism Anarchist communism (also known as anarcho-communism, libertarian communism and occasionally as free communism) is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property), and capitalism in favour of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need". Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom. Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organisationalist and insurrectionary anti-organisationalist sections. To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society (i.e., established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution[231] and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of the regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself. During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend – through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine – anarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. Post-classical schools of thought Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources, and syncretic, combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. Green anarchism (or eco-anarchism) is a school of thought within anarchism that emphasizes environmental issues, with an important precedent in anarcho-naturism,and whose main contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy that should be replaced by decentralised free association. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle, and the anarchist struggle against the state. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a necessary component of feminist struggle and vice versa. L. Susan Brown claims that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist". Anarcha-feminism began with the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency that rejects violence in the struggle for social change (see non-violence). It developed "mostly in the Netherlands, Britain, and the United States, before and during the Second World War". Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that combines anarchism and Christianity.[ Its main proponents included Leo Tolstoy, Dorothy Day, Ammon Hennacy, and Jacques Ellul. Internal issues and debates Anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as Marxism, communism and capitalism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilization, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism and insurrectionary anarchism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. On a tactical level, while propaganda of the deed was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the Nihilist movement), some contemporary anarchists espouse alternative direct action methods such as nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography to bring about an anarchist society. About the scope of an anarchist society, some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones.[269] The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many definitional concerns in anarchist theory. Topics of interest Intersecting and overlapping between various schools of thought, certain topics of interest and internal disputes have proven perennial within anarchist theory. Free love An important current within anarchism is free love. Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's sovereignty. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures. Libertarian education and freethought For English anarchist William Godwin education was "the main means by which change would be achieved." Godwin saw that the main goal of education should be the promotion of happiness. For Godwin education had to have "A respect for the child's autonomy which precluded any form of coercion," "A pedagogy that respected this and sought to build on the child's own motivation and initiatives," and "A concern about the child's capacity to resist an ideology transmitted through the school." In his Political Justice he criticises state sponsored schooling "on account of its obvious alliance with national government". Early American anarchist Josiah Warren advanced alternative education experiences in the libertarian communities he established. Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called The False Principle of our Education. In it Stirner names his educational principle "personalist," explaining that self-understanding consists in hourly self-creation. Education for him is to create "free men, sovereign characters," by which he means "eternal characters ... who are therefore eternal because they form themselves each moment". Criticisms Criticisms of anarchism include moral criticisms and pragmatic criticisms. Anarchism is often evaluated as unfeasible or utopian by its critics. European history professor Carl Landauer, in his book European Socialism argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force." He also argued that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity. REFERENCES "ANARCHISM, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man's natural social tendencies." George Woodcock. "Anarchism" at The Encyclopedia of Philosophy "In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions." Peter Kropotkin. "Anarchism" from the Encyclopædia Britannica "Anarchism." The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable." Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85 "as many anarchists have stressed, it is not government as such that they find objectionable, but the hierarchical forms of government associated with the nation state." Judith Suissa. Anarchism and Education: a Philosophical Perspective. Routledge. New York. 2006. p. 7 "IAF principles". International of Anarchist Federations. Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. The IAF – IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual. "That is why Anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organisation and preaches free agreement — at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist." Peter Kropotkin. Anarchism: its philosophy and ideal "anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy — hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society." "B.1 Why are anarchists against authority and hierarchy?" in An Anarchist FAQ Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism". MAN! (Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco). OCLC 3930443. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Agrell, Siri (14 May 2007). "Working for The Man". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 16 May 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2008. "Anarchism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 2006. Archived from the original on 14 December 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006. "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 14. 2005. Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59. ISBN 978-0754661962. Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6. Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003. "Anarchists do reject the state, as we will see. But to claim that this central aspect of anarchism is definitive is to sell anarchism short."Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism by Paul McLaughlin. AshGate. 2007. p. 28