SEMINAR ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELL MADE OF SEMICONDUCTOR

SEMINAR TOPIC ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELL MADE OF SEMICONDUCTOR WRITTEN BY chinedu james e. (POWER OPTION) TABLE OF CONTENTS SEMINAR TOPIC ON IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELL MADE OF SEMICONDUCTOR TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv Contents v Abstract vi Table of content Abstract CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Primary energy sources 1.2 Renewable energy sources Photovoltaic solar energy (solar electricity) 1.4 Introduction to photovoltaic solar energy 1.5 Photovoltaic technologies 1.6 Photovoltaic applications and market CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Improving the performance of organic solar cells 2.1 Magnetic nanoparticles enhance performance of solar cells 2.3 Improve Solar PV Panel Efficiency and Output Power Solar Cell Technology Fill factor Solar Cells Glazing Solar Panel Orientation Solar tracker Concentrators Solar Charge Controls MPPT Controller Top of Form 2.4 Blu-Ray Disc Can be Used to Improve Solar Cell Performance Data storage pattern transferred to solar cell increases light absorption 2.5 Improving the efficiency of solar panels Light scattering was promoted in the visible part of sunlight's spectrum CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Materials Crystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon Ribbon silicon Mono-like-multi silicon (MLM) Thin film Cadmium telluride Copper indium gallium selenide Silicon thin film Gallium arsenide thin film Multijunction cells 3.2 Research in solar cells Perovskite solar cells 3.3 Upconversion and Downconversion 3.4 Light-absorbing dyes 3.4 Quantum dots 3.5 Organic/polymer solar cells Manufacture CHAPTER FOUR Conclusion and recommendation reference Abstract The purpose of this project was to investigate how the design of solar cells could be improved so that they could become a more reliable source of energy. The first design change considered was shape manipulation, in which a normal photovoltaic array would be changed from a flat panel to either a cylindrical, parabolic, or spherical light-capture device. The idea is to change the cell or panel so that as much light is absorbed as possible. The second idea explored was to use a home water heating system in conjunction with the solar cells in order to control temperature fluctuation within the solar array, thus optimizing efficiency. The use of wiper blades, similar to windshield wiper systems in cars, was proposed as our third idea in order to remove any snow or debris from the surface of the panels. Other changes considered included the use of light-manipulation methods, such as Fresnel lenses, to enhance solar flux, prisms, which would be used to redirect light towards an array of solar cells, and one way glass, CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They are used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:  The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.  The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.  The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photoelectrolytic cell" (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by Edmond Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination. Any change that takes place in the universe is accompanied by a change in a quantity that we name energy. We do not know what energy exactly is, we use this term to describe a capacity of a physical or biological system for movement or change. Energy comes in many forms, such as electrical energy, chemical energy, or mechanical energy, and it can be used to realize many forms of change, such as movement, heating, or chemical change. Any activity, and human activity as well, requires energy. Human beings need it to move their bodies, to cook, to heat and light houses, or to drive vehicles. Human being is a greedy consumer of energy. An active young man needs about 2500 kcal (2.9 kWh) per day to fulfil his daily energy requirements. This means the energy of about 1060 kWh per year. The present global energy consumption is around 19 000 kWh per inhabitant per year. It means that on average a man consumes about 19 times more energy than is needed for his survival and satisfactory health. The mankind has witnessed an enormous increase in energy consumption during last 100 years. While in 1890 the energy use per inhabitant per year was around 5800 kWh it reached 20200 kWh in 1970. Since 1970 the energy use has dropped to the present level of 19000 kWh per inhabitant per year. The increase in energy use in the 20th century can be related to an evolution process that has started about five centuries ago. The underlying motivation of this process was formulated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th century as the philosophy of human progress. The aim of the process was an examination of the surrounding world and its adaptation to the needs of people whose life would become more secure and comfortable. This process was accompanied by growing industrialization and mass production, which were demanding more and more energy. At the end of the 19th century coal was the main source of energy. In this period electricity was introduced in the industrialized countries as a new and elegant form of energy. This form of energy was quickly applied on a large scale. The widespread growth of electricity use led to construction of hydroelectric plants and hydropower became an important source of energy in the first half of the 20th century. In the period after the World War II much effort was put into the reconstruction of the society. The emphasis was directed on the growth and efficiency of the mass production. New technologies and new materials, such as plastic, were applied in the production. The energy demand was tremendously growing in this period. Oil and gas started to play an important role as energy sources in the second half of the 20th century. Coal, oil, and gas form today dominant sources of energy. These three energy sources, also known as fossil fuels, are called the traditional energy sources. In this period nuclear energy was introduced as a new source of energy. Increasing and more efficient mass production resulted in the low price of many household products. The consumption of the products grew enormously and therefore it is not surprising that we characterize today society as a consumption society. Nevertheless, it has become evident at the end of the 20th century that the philosophy of human progress that has manifested itself in a huge production and consumption of goods has a negative side too. It has been recognized that a massive consumption of fossil fuels in order to fulfill the present energy demands has a negative impact on the environment. The deterioration of environment is a clear warning that the present realization of human progress has its limitations. The emerging international environmental consciousness was formulated in a concept of a sustainable human progress. The sustainable human progress is defined as: “… to ensure that it (sustainable development) meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”1. A new challenge has emerged at the end of the 20th century that represents a search for and a utilization of new and sustainable energy sources. The urge of this challenge is underlined by limited resources of the fossil fuels on the Earth and increasing demand for energy production. This is the reason why the attention is turning to the renewable energy sources. Energy is an essence of any human activity. When we are interested in how the human civilization has been producing and using energy, we can describe it in terms of an energy system. The main characteristics of the energy system are: the population, the total consumption of energy, and the sources and forms of energy that people use. The energy system at the beginning of the 21st century is characterized by six billion people that live on the Earth and the total energy consumption of approximately 1.3 × 1010 kW. 1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

TITLE PAGE RISK MANAGEMENT AS A STRATEGY FOR PROFIT MAXIMIZATION (A CASE STUDY ACCESS BANK PLC) WRITTEN BY Chinedu j.e. ABSTRACT The study carried out an empirical investigation into the quantitative effect of credit risk on the performance of commercial banks in Nigeria over the period of 11 years 2000\2010.Five commercial banking firms were selected on a cross sectional basis for eleven years. The traditional profit theory was employed to formulate profit, measured by return on asset[ROA], as a function of the ratio of Nonperforming loan to loan and advance [NPLILA], ratio of total loan and advance to total deposit[LA/TD] and the ratio of loan loss provision to classified loans[LLP/TD] as measures of credit risk. Panel model analysis was used to estimate the determinants of the profit function. The result showed that the effect of credit risk on bank performance measure by the return on Assets of banks is cross sectional invariant. That is, the effect is similar across banks in Nigeria, though the degree to which individual banks are affected is not captured by the method of analysis employed in the study. Banks collect deposits and lend to customers but when customer fail to meet their obligations, problem such as non performing loans arise. This study evaluates the impact of credit risk on the profitability of Nigerian banks. The findings revealed that credit risk management has a significant impact on the profitability of Nigeria banks. pls call to get the full material on 08032849308

THE CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF MICRO FINANCE BANK IN THE RURAL AREAS

THE CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF MICRO FINANCE BANK IN THE RURAL AREAS CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Robust economic growth cannot achieved without putting in place a well focused programme to reduce poverty through empowering the people by increasing their access to factors of production especially credit. The lastest capacity of the poor for entrepreneurship would be significantly enhanced through the provision of microfinancve service to enable them engage in economic activities and be more self reliance, increase employment opportunist, enhance household income and create wealth. Micro finance is about providing financial service for the poor who are traditionally not saved by the conventional financial institution. It has three features, these are:  The smallness of loans advanced and savings collected.  The absence of assests based collaterals  Simplicity of operations. In Nigeria, the final financial institutions save about 35% of the economically active population while the remaining 65% are excluded from access for finanmcial service. The non-regulation of the activities of some of those institution has serious implication for the central bank of Nigeria (CBN’S) ABILITY TO EXERCISE ONE ASPECT OF ITS MANDATE OF PROMOTING MONETARY STABILITY AND A SAID FINANCIAL SYSTEM. A micro financial policy which recognizes the existing inamal institution and brings the within the supervisory provision of the CBN would not only enhance monetary stability but also expand the financial requirement of the micro small and medium enterprises (MSME) such sub-sector that should adequately integrate into the main steam of the standard and provide a strategic plat form for the evolution of micro finance institution, npromoting appropriate regulation, supervision and adoption of best practices. In these circumstances, an appropriate policy has become necessary to develop a 1.2 statement of the problems The research study is defined to review the challenges facing micro finance bank in Nigeria as well as their contribution providing financial services to the poor who are not traditionally serve by conventional financial institution. It will also highlight the contribution of micro finance bank in development of rural and urban sector of the society. It will also seek to cover the majority of the poor but economically active population thereby creating millions of job opportunities and reducing poverty. This will also mobilize domestic savings and promote the banking culture among low income grups. If so, how will those rural dwellers benefit from such bankng institution? 1.3 objectives of the study The objectives of the study are stated below: 1. To examine the performance of micro finance bank in the rural and urban area communities and how they affect the lives of the people in that area. 2. To be used in partial fulfillment of award of national diploma in the department of banking and finance. REASEARCH QUESTIONS This research work will provide answers to the following research questions 1. In what way does the micro finance bank help the active poor. 2. Does micro finance bank actually bring developments to the rural dwellers ? 3. Does the government and public benefit from the services rendered by micro finance institution 4. Are they loan requirement stringent for small and modern scale enterprise ? 1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY The significance of this study cannot be over emphasized. It is expected that a number of people and micro finance bank would benefit from it. Firstly, the finding will be used to reshape the financial sector of the country. It will also assists government to modify practice necessary for a healthy banking practice in the urban and rural communities, where micro finance banks operates and the bank customers will also benefit since it will encourage rural banking habit as well as reduces or instill confidence in them. Lastly, it is expected to benefit from banks in Nigeria and student who may research on this topic in future. It will be of particular relevance to the active poor in the society on the issue of micro finance banks is a negative or positive effects. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study will cover a review of challenges and contribution of micro finance bank in develop-ments of the rural areas. Emphasis will be placed on those that operate in the rural areas and how they will be contributing to the rural transformation. For the purpose of the study, we will be looking at the micro finance bank (i.e.) oche micro finance ltd and unique trust micro finance bank all in imo state. 1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY In the course of carrying out this study many problems were encountered. Some the difficulties were strange while some were routine problems. Generally speaking, the problems facing this study are not farfetched. 1 this study should have covered the entire country since the micro finance bank ltd and unique trust micro finance has the whole country as its market but due to the inadequate time needed to cover every aspect of the variable under study to take oche micro finance bank ltd as a case study. 2 there was the problem of ignorance lack of the co operation on the part of respondents 3 inadequate literatures, journals, articles, magazines etc that were published with respect to the contributions and challenges of micro finance bank in the rural areas. 1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS This section will deal with some times which were used for easy comprehensive. Some of these terms are as follows: CAMA- Company and allied matters act CBN- Central bank of Nigeria NGO- Non-governmental organization NAFCC- National micro finance consultation committee MFBS – MICRO FINANCE BANKS DECAP- DEVELOPMENT CAPITAL FUND FINCA- FOUNDATON FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ASSITANCE ACGS –AGRICULTURE CREDIT GUARRANTEES. CBS –COMMUNITY BANKS. FEAP FAMILY ECONOMIC ADVANCEMENT PROGRAMME . NAPER – NATIONALPOVERTY ERADICATION. call for the material on 08032849308

read it here: DISCUSS THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES OF BOKO ...

read it here: DISCUSS THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES OF BOKO ...: ABSTRACT The Boko Haram fundamentalist Islamic group is the first insurgent organization in Nigeria to be classified as a terrorist organiz...

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING INSURANCE IN NIGERIA

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING INSURANCE IN NIGERIA 1. NEGATIVE OR BAD RECORD: Experience has revealed that many insurance companies has failed in their duties of settling their policyholders by giving excuses on the reasons why they should not settle them. Because of this, many would be customers or prospective customers still entertain fears as to the insurance firms abilities to settle their claims when it eventually surface. 2. PREVIOUS RECORD: Past record has shown that individuals do depend on their relatives, friends and well wishers in the area of monetary assistance as to the provision of remedies to their private or business problems which makes it difficult for individuals who desires to attract financial assistance from insurance companies to be discouraged. 3. Attitude: An attitude may be defined as a learned disposition to behave in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way with respect to a given object (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000). Stated differently, it positions people into a frame of mind of liking or disliking things, of moving toward or away from them‘ (Kolter and Armstrong, 2008: p144). It is acknowledged that people have attitudes toward almost everything - religion, politics, clothes, music, food (Kotler, 2003). For instance The demand for life insurance in a country may be affected by the unique culture of the country to the extent that it affects the population‘s risk aversion (Douglas and Wildavski, 1982). Henderson and Milhouse (1987) argue that an individual‘s religion can provide an insight into the individual‘s behaviour; and understanding religion is an important component of understanding a nation‘s unique culture. Also, Zelizer (1979) notes that religion historically has provided a strong source of cultural opposition to life insurance as many religious people believe that a reliance on life insurance results from a distrust of God‘s protecting care. But historically, some form of social insurance existed in Nigerian and Africa society long before the introduction of the modern insurance in Nigeria (Osoka, 1992). These social schemes evolved through the existence of extended family system and social associations such as age grades, and other unions. 4. LACK OF KNOWLEDGE OF INSURANCE CULTURE: In a recent study of quality of life in developing countries with reference to South Africa (Moller, 2004), income and social security (own wages, ability to provide for family, insurance against illness/death and income in old age) have been treated as one of the major indicators of quality of life. This standpoint stresses the significance of insurance to human life. Ironically, insurance services seem not to have been so accepted enthusiastically in developing countries. The abysmal level of insurance culture in developing economies has attracted relative interests among researchers and practitioners alike. Risk has been identified as a central fact of life in the rural areas of less-developed countries (Udry, 1994). 5. LOW LEVEL OF EDUCATION: Educational status of Nigerians has significant influence on their attitude towards insurance. Educated people have more positive attitude to insurance than less educated ones. In a recent insurance conducted in Lagos, Nigeria. The choice of Lagos is due to its nature as a metropolitan city where most Nigerian ethnic groups are largely represented. Fact shows that respondents with higher education outperformed others even though no statistical significant difference was observed with vocational education. 6. UNEMPLOYMENT ISSUE: Employees working status has a significance effect on Nigerians attitude towards insurance. Retired and Employed Nigerians with means attitude scores of 28.50 and 28.14 respectively outperformed their competitors. No significant difference was observed between retired, employed and Self-employed respondents. On the other hand, self-employed people have significantly higher attitude towards insurance than unemployed, student and part time workers. This result is quite similar to findings in most developed world. In Conclusion, The findings of this study suggest some major implications for marketing of insurances services in Nigerian businesses environment which is a big market. Given that attitude is strongly linked to behaviour, marketers of insurance services targeting Nigerians are confronted with the challenge of encouraging people to embrace insurance institution and its associated benefits. Based on the findings, this article confirms negative attitudes of Nigerians to insurance services further. But apart from this broad finding in respect of the negative attitudes to this line of business, this study suggests some specific findings based on different demographical factors of the respondents. The findings serve as inputs to marketers of insurance services on how they formulate and implement relevant marketing strategies towards addressing the nonchalant attitude of Nigerians to insurance. For instance, specific marketing strategies are required to encourage the young generation below 46 years of age, the divorced/separated, and the less-educated to embrace and appreciate the role of insurance. Since, the basic issue associated with this lack of interest rests mainly in their lack of appreciation of the roles of benefits of insurance services; it is recommended that significant marketing communication activities with instant compensation to both marketers be targeted more at this set of people highlighted. This will help to kindle their interest in the business and brings the insurance institution to the highly exalted position it belongs in their perception.

DISCUSS THE SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES OF BOKO HARAM

ABSTRACT The Boko Haram fundamentalist Islamic group is the first insurgent organization in Nigeria to be classified as a terrorist organization by the United States of America and its allies. Since 2009 the violence the group has unleashed on the Nigerian State is unprecedented in the history of insurgency in the country. Several studies have intellectualized the origin, motive and other activities of this infamous rebellious group. To advance the discourse on Boko Haram, this study examines the measures the Nigerian government has taken so far to address the menace posed by the Boko Haram insurgents. Using library research and interview methods, the findings of the study indicate that first, that the path Government should not follow is using the same methods it used to combat the Niger Delta militants to address the Boko Haram insurgents. Second, that peace negotiation is most unlikely to succeed with insurgents like those of Boko Haram with vile ideologies, whose core demands undermine democracy and good governance. Rather, it is more likely to succeed with insurgent groups pursuing legitimate political or economic based grievances that are capable of deepening democracy and good governance, that is, if Government accepts their core demands. Third, that peace negotiation is most unlikely to succeed with Boko Haram insurgents, since they do not have the capacity to lead a provincial government, after disavowing terrorism. This study strongly recommends that to checkmate the threat posed by Boko Haram insurgents, Government should treat them like terrorists rather than freedom fighters THE HISTORY OF BOKO HARAM Boko Haram, officially called Wilāyat Gharb Ifrīqīyyah West Africa Province, ISWAP), and formerly called Jamā'at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da'wah wa'l-Jihād' "Group of the People of Sunnah for Preaching and Jihad"), is a jihadist group based in northeastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and northern Cameroon. The group is led by Abubakar Shekau. Estimates of the group's membership varies between 7,000 and 10,000 fighters. The group initially had links to al-Qaeda, but in 2014, it expressed support for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant before pledging formal allegiance to it in March 2015. After its founding in 2002, Boko Haram's increasing radicalization led to a violent uprising in July 2009 in which its leader was summarily executed. Its unexpected resurgence, following a mass prison break in September 2010, was accompanied by increasingly sophisticated attacks, initially against soft targets, and progressing in 2011 to include suicide bombings of police buildings and the United Nations office in Abuja. The government's establishment of a state of emergency at the beginning of 2012, extended in the following year to cover the entire northeast of Nigeria, resulted in a marked increase in both security force abuses and militant attacks. Boko Haram killed more than 13,000 civilians between 2009 and 2015, including around 10,000 in 2014, in attacks occurring mainly in northeast Nigeria. The Nigerian military initially proved ineffective in countering the insurgency, hampered by an entrenched culture of official corruption. Since mid-2014, the militants have been in control of swathes of territory in and around their home state of Borno, estimated at 50,000 square kilometres (20,000 sq mi) in January 2015, but have not captured the capital of Borno state, Maiduguri, where the group was originally based. However, after joint military operation with Nigerian Armed Forces, Chadian Armed Forces, Cameroonian Armed Forces, local vigilante groups, local hunters and local fishermen, Boko Haram lost its capital Gwoza and most of its occupied territories while it is still controlling southern parts of Borno State. Boko Haram founding and early years Mohammed Yusuf founded the sect that became known as Boko Haram in 2002 in Maiduguri, the capital of the north-eastern state of Borno. He established a religious complex and school that attracted poor Muslim families from across Nigeria and neighbouring countries. The center had the political goal of creating an Islamic state, and became a recruiting ground for jihadis. By denouncing the police and state corruption, Yusuf attracted followers from unemployed youths. It has been speculated that the reason Yusuf founded Boko Haram appears to be that he saw an opportunity to exploit public outrage at government corruption by linking it to Western influence in governance.[64] He is reported to have used the existing infrastructure in Borno of the Izala Society (Jama'at Izalatil Bidiawa Iqamatus Sunnah), a popular conservative Islamic sect, to recruit members, before breaking away to form his own faction. The Izala were originally welcomed into government, along with people sympathetic to Yusuf. Boko Haram conducted its operations more or less peacefully during the first seven years of its existence, withdrawing from society into remote north-eastern areas. The government repeatedly ignored warnings about the increasingly militant character of the organization. The Council of Ulama advised the government and the Nigerian Television Authority not to broadcast Yusuf's preaching, but their warnings were ignored. Yusuf's arrest elevated him to hero status.. ITS SOCIAL ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCIES Within the last few years, heightened social insecurity in Nigeria has arguably fuelled the crime rate, leaving unpalatable consequences for the nation’s economy and its growth. For the purpose of definition, insecurity could be described as the presence of fear and absence of economic or physical protection for persons, buildings, organisations or country against destruction or threats like crime or attacks. The rates of terrorist bombings, kidnappings, armed robbery attacks on banks as well as other violent crimes in recent months, have led to a prevalent massive loss of the nation’s human resources. This ugly trend poses a threat to the future of the nation’s agricultural productivity level, private sector investment volume, petroleum sector growth rate, manpower and overall economic development. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, Nigeria’s unemployment rate increased to 23.9 per cent in 2011 compared with 21.1 per cent in 2010 and 19.7 per cent of 2009. The country has a youth population of 80 million, representing about 60 per cent of the total population with a growth rate of 2.6 per cent per year and the national demography suggests that the youth population remains vibrant with an average annual entrant to the labour force at 1.8 million between 2006 and 2011. Several corporate organisations that have human resource policies on workers’ compensation, insurance and other forms of workers’ welfare have deliberately refused to implement them. In most cases, the list of contract staff and expatriates on their payroll far surpasses that of other personnel in a country with disturbing unemployment rate records. The Federal Ministry of Labour has over the years, abandoned its responsibility as regards labour inspection and general supervision of employers in the country. “Malnutrition is the underlying cause of morbidity and mortality of a large proportion of children under-5 in Nigeria. It accounts for more than 50 per cent of deaths of children in this age bracket. The deaths of newborn babies in Nigeria represent a quarter of the total number of deaths of children under-five. The majority of these occur within the first week of life, mainly due to complications during pregnancy and delivery reflecting the intimate link between newborn survival and the quality of maternal care. Similarly, a woman’s chance of dying from pregnancy and childbirth in Nigeria is 1 in 13. Amidst this alarming level of social insecurity, the wide gap between the few corrupt rich citizens and the poor is further being widened. For instance, the value of private properties acquired with public funds which have been obviously looted by a few ex-public office holders without rebuke, is scaring. Private aircraft owned only by a few politicians, businessmen and clergymen are also estimated to have grown in the country from about 20 in year 2000 to over 150 in 2012, at a time when many Nigerians are living below the poverty line. Massive loss of human resources and its effect as well as government’s unimpressive response to the various forms of crime do not offer hopes that the nation is likely to realize its short and long term economic targets. The 2012 Report from Amnesty International indicates that Nigeria recorded 215 deaths from violent attacks by suspected members of the Boko Haram sect between June and December 2011. Kidnapping has equally increased in both frequency and scope, especially in the Niger Delta states and the south eastern part of the country. Conclusions First, the group may have been nurtured from outside. Sources in the Maiduguri religious establishment say it is possible that money from Salafist groups in Saudi Arabia supported it in the early years. It appears that Boko Haram members also received training in rebel camps in the Sahel during a time of crisis for the group. Second, Boko Haram has grown at a time when there are many national issues that draw anger and feed the group. This includes the continued killing and corruption perpetrated by the police on people connected to the group; the brutal manner in which the police behave to the public at large; the financial corruption of the government; the moral corruption of the religious establishment (as perceived by Boko Haram); a festering conflict in Plateau state. Now that the group has expanded beyond a small number of mosques, radical reforms in policing strategy are necessary if there is to be any progress in gaining intelligence about where—and who—the group is. Indeed, widespread radical reform of the police is long overdue throughout Nigeria. REFERENCES Akpan, F. (2000). Ethnic minority and the Nigerian state: The Ogoni Struggle after Ken Saro-Wiwa. In O. Okome (Ed.), Before I am Hanged Ken Saro-Wiwa: Literature, politics and dissent. Trenton: African World Press Inc Al Jazeera Cable News Network. Bartolotta, C. (2011). Terrorism in Nigeria: The rise of Boko Haram. The Whiteheard Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. Campbell, J. (2013, October). Should U.S. fear Boko Haram?. CNN. Channel Televison News Programme. (2013, December 20). Chothia, F. (2012). Who are Nigeria’s Boko Haram Islamist?. BBC News. Herskovits, J. (2012). In Nigeria, Boko Haram is not the problem. The New York Times. Ibeanu, O. (2001). Oiling the friction: Environmental conflict management in Nigeria Delta. Nigeria Environmental Change and Security Project Report, (6). Jonathan, G. (2013, December 23). RE: Before it is too late. Premium Times. Murtaza, N. (2013). Terrorism: Flawed theories. Retrieved from www.dawn.com/news.

STATE VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANT AND DISCUSS THEIR EFFECT ON HUMAN

INTRODUCTION The first week of December 1952 was unusually cold in London, so residents burned large quantities of coal in their fireplaces to keep warm. Early on December 5, moisture in the air began condensing into fog near the ground. The fog mixed with smoke from domestic fires and emissions from factories and diesel-powered buses. Normally the fog would have risen higher in the atmosphere and dispersed, but cold air kept it trapped near the ground. Over the next four days, the smog became so thick and dense that many parts of London were brought to a standstill. Public officials did not realize that the Great Smog was the most deadly air pollution event on record until mortality figures were published several weeks afterward. Some 4,000 people died in London between December 5-9 of illnesses linked to respiratory problems such as bronchitis and pneumonia, and the smog's effects caused another 8,000 deaths over the next several months. Samples showed that victims' lungs contained high levels of very fine particles, including carbon material and heavy metals such as lead, zinc, tin, and iron. Air pollution was not news in 1952—London's air had been famously smoky for centuries—but the Great Smog showed that it could be deadly. The event spurred some of the first governmental actions to reduce emissions from fuel combustion, industrial operations, and other manmade sources. Over the past half-century, scientists have learned much more about the causes and impacts of atmospheric pollution. Many nations have greatly reduced their emissions, but the problem is far from solved. In addition to threatening human health, air pollutants damage ecosystems, weaken Earth's stratospheric ozone shield, and contribute to global climate change Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into Earth's atmosphere, causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources. Primary Air Pollutants Primary air pollutants are emitted directly into the air from sources. They can have effects both directly and as precursors of secondary air pollutants (chemicals formed through reactions in the atmosphere), which are discussed in the following section. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas formed when sulfur is exposed to oxygen at high temperatures during fossil fuel combustion, oil refining, or metal smelting. SO2 is toxic at high concentrations, but its principal air pollution effects are associated with the formation of acid rain and aerosols. SO2 dissolves in cloud droplets and oxidizes to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which can fall to Earth as acidrain or snow or form sulfate aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Associated impacts are discussedbelow in Section 5, "Aerosols," and Section 7, "Acid Deposition." Nitrogen oxides(NO and NO2, referred together as NOx) are highly reactive gases formed when oxygen and nitrogen react at high temperatures during combustion or lightning strikes. Nitrogen present in fuel can also be emitted as NOX during combustion. Emissions are dominated by fossil fuel combustion at northern mid-latitudes and by biomass burning in the tropics. shows the distribution of NOx emissions to the atmosphere in 2006 as determined by satellite measurements of atmospheric NO2concentrations. In the atmosphere NOX reacts with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide to produce ground-level ozone through a complicated chain reaction mechanism. It is eventually oxidized to nitric acid (HNO3). Like sulfuric acid, nitric acid contributes to acid deposition and to aerosol formation. Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless gas formed by incomplete combustion of carbon in fuel. The main source is motor vehicle exhaust, along with industrial processes and biomass burning. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, reducing their ability to transport and release oxygen throughout the body. Low exposures can aggravate cardiac ailments, while high exposures cause central nervous system impairment or death. It also plays a role in the generation of ground-level ozone,.Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including hydrocarbons (CxHy) but also other organic chemicals are emitted from a very wide range of sources, including fossil fuel combustion, industrial activities, and natural emissions from vegetation and fires. Some anthropogenic VOCs such as benzene are known carcinogens. Secondary Air Pollutants Secondary pollutants form when primary pollutants react in the atmosphere. Table 1 summarizes common forms of atmospheric reactions. For reactions to take place, molecules have to collide. However, gases are present in the atmosphere at considerably lower concentrations than are typical for laboratory experiments or industrial processes, so molecules collide fairly infrequently. As a result, most atmospheric reactions that occur at significant rates involve at least one radical —a molecule with an odd number of electrons and hence an unpaired electron in its outer shell. The unpaired electron makes the radical unstable and highly reactive with other molecules. Radicals are formed when stable molecules are broken apart, a process that requires large amounts of energy. Pollutant Sources Effects Ozone. A gas that can be found in two places. Near the ground (the troposphere), it is a major part of smog. The harmful ozone in the lower atmosphere should not be confused with the protective layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), which screens out harmful ultraviolet rays. Ozone is not created directly, but is formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone is mostly found in the summer. Nitrogen oxides come from burning gasoline, coal, or other fossil fuels. There are many types of volatile organic compounds, and they come from sources ranging from factories to trees. Ozone near the ground can cause a number of health problems. Ozone can lead to more frequent asthma attacks in people who have asthma and can cause sore throats, coughs, and breathing difficulty. It may even lead to premature death. Ozone can also hurt plants and crops. Carbon monoxide. A gas that comes from the burning of fossil fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be seen or smelled. Carbon monoxide is released when engines burn fossil fuels. Emissions are higher when engines are not tuned properly, and when fuel is not completely burned. Cars emit a lot of the carbon monoxide found outdoors. Furnaces and heaters in the home can emit high concentrations of carbon monoxide, too, if they are not properly maintained. Carbon monoxide makes it hard for body parts to get the oxygen they need to run correctly. Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people feel dizzy and tired and gives them headaches. In high concentrations it is fatal. Elderly people with heart disease are hospitalized more often when they are exposed to higher amounts of carbon monoxide. Nitrogen dioxide. A reddish-brown gas that comes from the burning of fossil fuels. It has a strong smell at high levels. Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes from power plants and cars. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in two ways—when nitrogen in the fuel is burned, or when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at very high temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, acid rain, and particles. High levels of nitrogen dioxide exposure can give people coughs and can make them feel short of breath. People who are exposed to nitrogen dioxide for a long time have a higher chance of getting respiratory infections. Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain, which can harm plants and animals. Particulate matter. Solid or liquid matter that is suspended in the air. To remain in the air, particles usually must be less than 0.1-mm wide and can be as small as 0.00005 mm. Particulate matter can be divided into two types—coarse particles and fine particles. Coarse particles are formed from sources like road dust, sea spray, and construction. Fine particles are formed when fuel is burned in automobiles and power plants. Particulate matter that is small enough can enter the lungs and cause health problems. Some of these problems include more frequent asthma attacks, respiratory problems, and premature death. Sulfur dioxide. A corrosive gas that cannot be seen or smelled at low levels but can have a “rotten egg” smell at high levels. Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning of coal or oil in power plants. It also comes from factories that make chemicals, paper, or fuel. Like nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain and particles. Sulfur dioxide exposure can affect people who have asthma or emphysema by making it more difficult for them to breathe. It can also irritate people's eyes, noses, and throats. Sulfur dioxide can harm trees and crops, damage buildings, and make it harder for people to see long distances. Lead. A blue-gray metal that is very toxic and is found in a number of forms and locations. Outside, lead comes from cars in areas where unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also come from power plants and other industrial sources. Inside, lead paint is an important source of lead, especially in houses where paint is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a source of lead in drinking water. High amounts of lead can be dangerous for small children and can lead to lower IQs and kidney problems. For adults, exposure to lead can increase the chance of having heart attacks or strokes. Toxic air pollutants. A large number of chemicals that are known or suspected to cause cancer. Some important pollutants in this category include arsenic, asbestos, benzene, and dioxin. Each toxic air pollutant comes from a slightly different source, but many are created in chemical plants or are emitted when fossil fuels are burned. Some toxic air pollutants, like asbestos and formaldehyde, can be found in building materials and can lead to indoor air problems. Many toxic air pollutants can also enter the food and water supplies. Toxic air pollutants can cause cancer. Some toxic air pollutants can also cause birth defects. Other effects depend on the pollutant, but can include skin and eye irritation and breathing problems. Stratospheric ozone depleters. Chemicals that can destroy the ozone in the stratosphere. These chemicals include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other compounds that include chlorine or bromine. CFCs are used in air conditioners and refrigerators, since they work well as coolants. They can also be found in aerosol cans and fire extinguishers. Other stratospheric ozone depleters are used as solvents in industry. If the ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, people are exposed to more radiation from the sun (ultraviolet radiation). This can lead to skin cancer and eye problems. Higher ultraviolet radiation can also harm plants and animals. Greenhouse gases. Gases that stay in the air for a long time and warm up the planet by trapping sunlight. This is called the “greenhouse effect” because the gases act like the glass in a greenhouse. Some of the important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas. It comes from the burning of fossil fuels in cars, power plants, houses, and industry. Methane is released during the processing of fossil fuels, and also comes from natural sources like cows and rice paddies. Nitrous oxide comes from industrial sources and decaying plants. The greenhouse effect can lead to changes in the climate of the planet. Some of these changes might include more temperature extremes, higher sea levels, changes in forest composition, and damage to land near the coast. Human health might be affected by diseases that are related to temperature or by damage to land and water. CONCLUSION Air pollutants are major contributors to climate change. This connection is well known to scientists, although it has not yet permeated environmental policy. Figure 19 shows global climate forcing for the year 2000, relative to 1850, caused by different observed perturbations to the Earth system. Climate forcing from a given perturbation is defined as the mean resulting imbalance between energy input and energy output per unit time and unit area of Earth's surface (watts per square meter or W/m2), with all else remaining constant, including temperature. A positive radiative forcing means a decrease in energy output and hence a warming,. Negative radiative forcing,means a decrease in energy input and hence a cooling. Among the major greenhouse gases in Figure 19 are methane and tropospheric ozone, which are both of concern for air quality. Light absorption by black carbon aerosol particles also has a significant warming effect. Taken together these three agents produce more radiative forcing than CO2 . Reductions in these air pollutants thus would reap considerable benefit for climate change. However, air pollutants can also have a cooling effect that compensates for greenhouse warming. This factor can be seen from the negative radiative forcings due to non light-absorbing sulfate and organic aerosols originating from fossil fuel combustion. Scattering by these aerosols is estimated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to have a direct radiative forcing of -1.3 W/m2 , although this figure is highly uncertain. Indirect radiative forcing from increased cloud reflectivity due to anthropogenic aerosols is even more uncertain but could be as large as -1 W/m2. Scattering aerosols have thus masked a significant fraction of the warming imposed by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases over the past two centuries. Aerosol and acid rain control policies, though undeniably urgent to protect public health and ecosystems, will reduce this masking effect and expose us to more greenhouse warming. Influence also runs the other way. Global climate change has the potential to magnify air pollution problems by raising Earth's temperature (contributing to tropospheric ozone formation) and increasing the frequency of stagnation events. Climate change is also expected to cause more forest fires and dust storms, which can cause severe air quality problems References "Reports". WorstPolluted.org. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-29. "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution". WHO. 25 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2014. 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